TIEXILD; 


ULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 


This  scries  of  Books  for  Teachers  began  with  the  issue  in  1875  of 
Common  School  Law  for  Common  School  Teachers.  Within  six  years 
more  than  one  hundred  books  were  issued,  with  an  aggregate  sale 
exceeding  three  hundred  thousand  copies.  That  no  teacher's  library 
is  fairly  complete  without  at  least  several  of  these  books  is  com- 
monly admitted,  and  the  titles  of  some  of  the  more  important  are 

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This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  st««««wH  below 

±o  which  are  added    i. 
lirst  seven  New  York  Examina 
tions  for  State  Certificates.     7th  thousand.     Cloth,  12mo.,  pp. 

188  and  Appendix .' 50 

Roderick  Ilume.    The  story  of  a  New  York  Teacher.     Cloth, 

16mo.,  pp.  295 1  25 

Bulletin  Blank  Speller.  Designed  by  Prinpipal  H.  B.  Buckham, 

Buffalo  Normal  School.  Boards,  5fx7i,  round  corners,  pp.  40  15 

Book-Keeping  Blanks.  Day-Book,  Journal.  Ledger,  Cash  Book, 

Sales  Book.  In  sets  or  singly.  Press  board,  7x8  j,  pp.  28 15 

Composition  Book.  Designed  by  Principal  H.  B.  Buckham, 

Buffalo  Normal  School.  Manilla, 7x9,  pp.  34 15 

Class  Register.  Designed  by  Edward  Smith,  Superintendent  of 

Schools,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  'Press  board  covers,  Two  Sizes,  (a) 
6x7,  for  terms  of  twenty  weeks,  (b)  5x7.  for  terms  of  fourteen 
weeks.  When  not  othencise  specified  the  smaller  size  is  always 
sent.  Pp.48 25 

School  Ruler,  marked  on  one  side  by  inches  and  metres,  and 

containing  on  the  back  an  immense  amount  of  condensed  sta- 
tistical information.  Two  Styles,  (a)  Manilla,  12  inch,  (b)  Card- 
board, 6  inch.  Each  3*  cts.  Per  hundred 100 

Colored  Crayon,  for  Blackboard,  per  box  of  one  dozen,  nine 
different  colors — Red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  lake,  brown, 
light  brown,  blue,  lilac 25 

Common  School  Thermometer,  in  box,  post-paid 50 

Cooke  (Sidney  G.)  Politics  and  Schools.  Paper,  8vo.,  pp.  23 25 

Craig  (Asa  H.)  The  Question  Book.  A  general  review  of  Com- 
mon School  Studies,  to  be  used  in  schools  in  connection  with 
text-books.  Invaluable  to  teachers  as  a  means  of  giving  a 
Normal  Training.  42d  Thousand.  Cloth,  12mo.,  pp.  340 1  50 

De  Graff  (E.  V.)  PRACTICAL  PHONICS.  A  comprehensive 
study  of  Pronunciation,  forming  a  complete  guide  to  the  study 
of  the  elementary  sounds  of  the  English  Language,  and  con- 
taining 3000  words  of  difficult  pronunciation,  with  diacritical 
marks  according  to  Webster's  Dictionary.  Cloth,  12mo., 
pp.  108 75 

POCKET  PRONUNCIATION  BOOK,  containing  the  3000 

words  of  difficult  pronunciation,  with  diacritical  marks  accord- 
ing to  Webster's  Dictionary.  Manilla,  16mo.,  pp.  47 15 

27te  School  Room  Guide,  embodying  the  instruction  given  by 

the  author  at  Teachers'  Institutes  in  New  York  and  other 
States,  and  especially  intended  to  assist  Public  School  Teach- 
ers in  the  practical  work  of  the  school  room.  Tenth  Edition, 
with  many  additions  and  corrections.  Cloth,  12mo.,  pp.  449. .  1  50 

The  Song  Budget.   A  collection  cf  Songs  and  Music  for  schools 

and  educational  gatherings.     Paper,  small  4to.,  pp.  72 15 

The  School-Room  Chorus.     A  collection  of  200  Songs,  suitable 

for  Public  and  Private  Schools.    Boards,  small  4to.,  pp.  147..       35 


KMBODT1M6  THB  INSTRUCTION  GIVEN  BY  TUB  AUTHOR  AT 

TEACHERS'      INSTITUTES, 

IN  NEW  YORK  AND  OTHER  STATES, 

AND    ESPECIALLY    INTENDED  TO  ASSIST 

PUBLIC  SCHOOL  TEACHERS 


PRACTICAL  WORK  OF  THE  SCHOOL-ROOM. 


E.  v.  DEGRAFF,  A.  M., 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Paterson,  N.  J. 

Eleventh  Edition,  with  many  Additions  and  Corrections. 

PRICE,  ONE  DOLLAR  AND  A  HALF. 

SYRACUSE,  ]N.  Y.: 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  PUBLISHER, 
1882. 

Copyright,  E.  V.  DEGRAFF,  1877,  1879,  1880. 


TO  THE 
TEACHKRS  OF  OUR  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS, 

TO  WHOM        , 
HAVE  BEEN  ENTRUSTED  THE  TEACHING 

AND 
THE  TRAINING  OF  THE  RISING  GENERATION, 

THIS  VOLUME, 
WRITTEN  FOR  THEIR  AID  AND  ENCOURAGEMENT, 

IS 

MOST    RESPECTFULLY    DEDICATE!) 

F5Y  THEIR   FRIEND, 

THE  AUTHOR. 


Library 


Manuals,  both  general  and  special,  have  been  pub* 
iished,  relating  to  the  teacher's  work.  Information 
scattered  through  a  multitude  of  volumes  is  usually 
inaccessible  to  those  by  whom  it  is  most  needed ; 
and  consequently,  the  most  important  results  of  study 
and  research  are  often  of  no  avail  to  those  whose 
special  office  it  is  to  apply  them  to  a  practical  pur- 
pose. Hence  the  need  of  works  that  present  in  a 
condensed  form,  and  so  as  to  be  easily  referred  to, 
the  important  facts  of  pedagogy. 

Accordingly,  the  first  announcement  of  this  work 
was  greeted  with  the  most  earnest  expressions  of  ap- 
probation and  welcome.  The  design  was  to  prepare 
a  work  which,  while  comprehensive  and  complete 
within  its  scope,  would,  like  the  dictionary,  be  upon 
every  teacher's  desk,  to  be  consulted  whenever  occa- 
sion might  require,  thus  affording  information  and 
practical  aid  at  every  exigency  of  his'daily  labors. 

The  School  Room  Guide,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
is  but  a  pioneer,  opening  out,  it  is  hoped,  a  wide 
path  for  future  literary  and  professional  effort  in  the 
same  direction.  The  author  is  by  no  means  so  pre- 
sumptuous as  to  suppose  that  he  has  produced  a 
work  without  fault  or  blemish;  it  will  doubtless  share 
the  fate  of  all  books  of  its  class,  the  scrutinizing  crit- 


ft»  PREFACE. 


tcism  of  the  public.  In  future  editions  of  the  work, 
pains  will  be  taken  to  correct  what  is  faulty  and  to 
improve  what  is  imperfect ;  any  assistance  which 
those  who  appreciate  the  aim  of  the  work  may  be 
able  to  render  that  end,  will  be  gratefully  acknowl- 
edged. 

The  views  contained  in  this  Manual  are  the  result 
of  a  prolonged  experience  in  the  school-room  and  in 
teachers'  institutes. 

The  labor  expended  in  the  preparation  of  the 
volume  was  very  great.  It  has  formed  a  daily  sub- 
ject of  thought  for  the  past  five  years.  Many  of  the 
lessons  have  been  revised  three  or  four  times. 

This  is  hardly  the  place  to  confess  how  often  the 
task  was  about  to  be  abandoned  from  the  dispropor- 
tion felt  to  exist  between  its  magnitude  and  the  limited 
powers  that  could  be  summoned  to  execute  it ;  but  it 
was  as  often  resumed,  and  is  now  completed — com- 
pleted, but  not  PERFECTED. 

This  work  has  been  prepared  with  three  objects  in 
view  :  first,  completeness,  that  nothing  be  wanting  to 
assist  the  teacher  or  student ;  second,  correctness,  that 
nothing  erroneous  be  taught ;  and,  third,  brevity, 
that  its  readers  might  not  be  obliged  to  read  volume* 
in  order  to  learn  how  to  teach  the  different  subjects. 

To  carry  out  the  plan  of  this  book,  much  reading, 
as  well  as  much  thinking,  has  been  done  ;  to  tell 
where  and  by  whom  this  fact  or  that  method  was  ob- 
tained Is  an  impossibility. 

Wishing  to  do  justice  to  everybody,  no  claim  that 
may  be  fairly  made  to  any  idea,  fact,  or  method  in  it 


AN  AID:  NOT  A  SUBSTITUTE.  9 

will  be  disputed  ;  but  it  is  hoped  that  something  may 
be  left  even  when  all  claims  are  satisfied.  Nothing, 
however  has  been  taken  from  others  and  used  with- 
out dose  investigation.  All  facts,  methods  and  prin- 
ciples found  in  the  book,  come  whence  they  may, 
have  been  fused  into  a  common  itfiole.  The  whole — 
this  collecting  and  uniting  of  the  scattered  fragments 
of  thought  concerning  education — this  system, — is 
what  the  author  asks  credit  for,  if  credk  be  deemed 
his  due. 

In  every  subject  the  author  has  given  :  first,  an  in- 
troduction, followed  by  several  lessons  upon  the 
same  subjects ;  second,  explicit  directions.;  third, 
cautions  to  be  observed  ;  and  fourth,  results  to  be 
attained. 

It  is  hoped  that  in  this  volume  a  systematic  treatise 
for  the  special  guidance  of  the  teacher  may  be  found 
upon  all  subjects  taught  in  our  public  schools. 

Aa  a  preparation  for  the  successful  study  and  prac- 
tice of  this  book,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the 
several  branches  of  knowledge  taught. 

After  the  students  or  teachers  become  familiar  with 
the  subjects,  they  should  study  the  directions,  —or, 
as  they  are  termed — methods  of  teachisg. 

By  study,  much  may  be  accomplished  with  it; 
without  study,  little. 

The  wise  teacher  will  remember  that  the  methods 
presented  in  this  work  are  offered  as  aids  to  honest 
effort,  not  as  substitutes  for  personal  exertion. 

The  teacher  who  uses  them  as  mere  machines  for 
lessening  the  labor  of  thinking,  will  fail.  No  one  can 


t*  PREFACE. 


succeed  by  blind  imitation.  All  successful  teacher* 
must  work  out  their  own  salvation  in  reaching  a 
rational  solution  of  the  problems  presented  by  their 
profession 

These  methods  are  the  fruits  of  practical  experience 
and  definite  principles  of  action.  The  teacher  should 
study,  digest  and  appropriate  the  underlying  princi- 
ples, before  attempting  to  apply  the  forms. 

There  can  be  no  efficient  substitute  for  the  individ- 
uality ot  the  teacher. 

The  power  of  a  formal  method  lies  in  its  sugges- 
tivenessj  it  gives  direction  to  the  thoughts  of  the 
honest  inquirer  and  pilots  him  toward  the  goal  of  suc- 
cess: but  he  must  attain  it  by  his  own  persevering 
effort. 

Teaching  is  an  art  as  well  as  a  science;  it  requires 
apprenticeship  in  doing  things  as  well  as  in  reasoning 
out  relations. 

The  condition  of  success  in  every  calling  is  per- 
sonal strength  ;  the  armor  of  Achilles  would  be  only 
a  burdensome  obstruction  to  a  stripling.  Hobby 
riding  gives  a  delusive  appearance  of  progress,  but 
the  age  runs  away  from  the  rider. 

The  author  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  the 
educational  works  of  the  various  publishing  houses 
of  New  York  :  among  them,  Scribner,  Armstrong  & 
Co.;  Ivison,  Blakeman,  Taylor  &  Co.  ;  A..  S.  Barnes 
&  Co  ;  Harper  &  Brothers ;  Clark  &  Maynard  ;  Tain- 
tor  Brothers,  Merrill  &  Co. ;  and  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

To  all  who  have  aided  in  the  work,  the  thanks  ol 
the  author  are  due;  it  could  not  have  possessed  th« 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION,  vti 

value  which  may,  with  considerable  confidence,  be 
attributed  to  it,  had  it  not  been  for  cordial  support  ; 
and  certainly  could  not  have  earned  the  approval 
Which  it  may  justly  be  expected  to  receive.  The 
author  also  takes  occassion  to  express  his  obligations 
to  the  many  friends  who  have  afforded  valuable  aid 
in  giving  important  advice,  or  in  affording  needed  in- 
formation. Among  the  number  are  Dr.  Joseph  Alden, 
president  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Albany ; 
Miss  Minnie  Sherwood,  principal  of  public  school, 
Auburn,  N.  Y.  ;  John  Kennedy,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. ;  also 
to  associate  instructors,  school  commissioners  and 
superintendents  of  public  schools.  - 

To  all  of  these  the  author  would  extend  his  grate- 
ful acknowledgment  for  encouragement  and  valua- 
ble suggestions. 

Sincerely  hoping  that  this  Manual  will  contribute 
to  the  cause  of  education,  it  is  most  respectfully  sub- 
mitted to  the  public. 

ALBANY,  November  1,  1877. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  having  been  entirely 
gold  before  it  was  received  from  the  binder,  I  am 
compelled  to  make  this  revision  more  hasty  than  I 
could  have  desired.  The  subjects  have  been  entirely 
rearranged  and  indexed  by  head-lines,  however,  and 
many  corrections  have  been  made.  I  shall  be  glad 
of  suggestions  for  future  revision. 

E.  v.  DEGRAFF. 

ALBANY,  December  15,  1877. 


"  Words  are  things ;  and  a  small  drop  of  ink,  falling  like 
dew  upon  a  thought,  produces  that  which  makes  thousands, 
perhaps  millions,  think." — Byron. 

"  The  fool  hath  planted  his  memory  with  an  army  of 
words." — Shpkspeare. 

"In  the  commerce  of  speech  use  only  coin  of  gold  and 
silver.  ...  Be  profound  with  clear  terms,  and  not  with 
obscure  terms." — Jaubert. 

"  It  is  highly  important,  that  whatever  we  learn  or  know, 
we  should  know  CORRECTLY  ;  for  unless  our  knowledge 
be  correct,  we  lose  half  its  value  and  usefulness. "—  Oon- 
tersations  on  Botany. 


READING. 


Methods  Used  in  Teaching  Children  to  Read* 

Methods. 

1.  The  Word  Method. 

2.  The  Object  Method. 

3.  The  Phonic  Method. 

4.  The  Phonetic  Method. 

5.  The  Phonotypic  Method. 

6.  The  Word-Building  Method. 

7.  The  Lcok-and-say  Method. 

8.  The  Sentence  Method. 

9.  The  Drawing  Method. 

10.  The  A,  b,  c,  or  Alphabetic  Method. 

That  teachers  may  distinguish  good  methods  from 
poor  ones,  descriptions  will  be  given  of  some  of  the 
plans  employed  for  the  first  lessons  in  reading. 

Some  are  old,  long,  unnatural  and  tedious,  afford- 
ing little  else  than  monotony  to  stimulate  the  child's 
desire  to  learn.  Others  may  be  shorter,  but  none  the 
less  unnatural  and  arbitrary. 

Some  are  unphilosophical,  and  leave  no  cause  for 
surprise  that  so  many  children  flounder  at  the  very 
threshold  of  knowledge,  the  very  place  that  should 
be  made  most  attractive.  The  Word  Method  will 
receive  close  attention,  and  it  is  hoped  that  those 
teachers  who  are  not  familiar  with  it  will  study  it 
and  use  it. 


10  READING. 


How  to  Teach  Pupils  to  Read  by  the  Word 
Method. 

I.  Directon*. 

1.  Call  the  attention  of  the  children  to  some  ob- 
ject. 

2.  Ask  questions  about  the  object. 

8.  Talk  to  the  children  about  the  object. 

4.  Ask  the  children  to  give  the  name  of  the  object. 

5.  Show  a  picture  of  the  object. 

6.  Make  a  drawing  on  the  board  of  the  object. 

7.  Print  and  write  the  word  on  the  board. 

8.  Let  the  pupils  copy  the  word  on  their  slates. 

9.  Group  words  into  phrases. 

10.  Group  words  into  sentences. 

11.  After  the  pupils  learn  one  sentence,  use  it  in 
making  other  sentences. 

12.  Select  words  that  are  the  names  of  familiar  ob- 
jects. 

II.  Cautions. 

1.  Present  only  two  or  three  new  words  for  each 
lesson. 

2.  Teach  the  children  to  recognize  words  as  signs 
of  ideas. 

8.  At  first  give  no  attention  to  the  elements  of  which 
words  are  composed  ;  as  the  elementary  sounds,  and 
letters. 

4.  Attempt  no  spelling  of  any  of  the  words. 

III.  Results. 

1.  Knowledge. 

2.  Naturalness  of  expression. 
8.  Fluency. 


THE  WORD  METHOD.  11 

REMARKS. — In  the  earliest  stages  of  the  course, 
teaching  precedes  learning ;  the  child's  steps  are 
guided  and  upheld  by  the  teacher  ;  his  way  is  made 
clear  for  him,  and  his  difficulties  are  anticipated.  It 
is  essential  that  the  child  shall  have  a  liking  to  the 
work  in  which  he  is  engaged.  It  is  the  spirit  of  the 
teacher  rather  than  his  methods  that  ensures  success 
in  teaching  little  ones  to  read. 

In  the  word  method,  we  begin  by  teaching  words, 
leading  the  children  to  recognize  them  as  wholes. 
This  method  is  now  used  extensively ;  it  was  the 
method  used  by  the  race  in  developing  the  language. 
Nature  is  the  guide  of  both  parents  and  children. 
There  is  a  fitness  in  her  means  that  secures,  in  the 
most  simple  way,  the  most  desirable  ends.  We 
have  become  artificial,  mechanical  in  teaching  ;  we 
need  to  retrace  our  steps  and  imitate  nature's  process. 
Follow  Nature's  Plan. 

Nature  begins  with  objects — the  idea  first,  its  signs 
second,  and  the  ability  to  represent  the  idea  of  its 
signs  third — the  natural  order  of  learning  language, 
and  the  natural  order  of  using  it,  are  made  to  corres- 
pond. The  word  soon  becomes  familiar  to  the  child. 
It  is  the  object  of  thought. 

The  word  method  begins  with  words,  and  not  let- 
ters. To  teach  the  word  "  hat  "  it  does  not  teach  first 
the  letters  h,  a,  t,  and  say  "  hat ;  '  but  it  takes  the  word 
and  calls  it  "  hat"  without  any  reference  to  the  fact 
that  the  printed  word  is  made  up  ol  letters. 
The  Thing  Before  the  Sign. 

The  thing  before  the  sign  is  the  rule  in  teachine. 


12  READING. 


Words  that  are  not  signs  of  things  can  be  illustrated 
by  examples:  for  instance,  white,  by  showing  the 
color;  runs,  by  showing  the  act;  on,  by  showing  the 
position,  etc.  By  this  method  it  will  take  no  more 
time  to  teach  the  word,  its  elementary  sounds,  letters 
and  spelling,  than  the  letters  alone  by  the  old  way  of 
teaching  the  letters  first. 

Let  the  teacher  aim  to  get  the  children  to  talk  freely. 
If  possible,  present  a  real  object  to  the  class  ;  a  pic- 
ture, or  a  drawing.  Ask  questions  to  draw  out  what 
the  children  know  of  the  object.  You  now  have  ex- 
cited an  interest;  show  the  class  the  word  ;  print  or 
write  the  word  under  the  drawing  ;  tell  the  children 
that  the  word  is  a  picture  of  the  real  object ;  require 
the  children  to  pronounce  it  several  times  ;  print  the 
word  in  several  places  on  the  board;  and  require  the 
children  to  pronounce  it  in  concert. 

In  like  manner  teach  quality  words,  for  example 
"red  ;"  show  an  object  that  is  red,  and  print  on 
the  board  the  words,  '*  a  red  cap,"  and  request  pupils 
to  read  the  phrase.  That  the  plan  of  teaching  chil- 
dren to  read  by  the  word  method  may  be  more  clearly 
understood  and  readily  applied,  the  following  direc- 
tions are  given: 

How  to  Teach  the  Word  Method. 

Let  the»teacher  begin  by  a  familiar  conversation 
with  the  children  about  some  object.  It  is  of  little 
importance  what  words  are  taught  first,  if  the  words 
are  short  ones  and  familiar  to  the  children  by  use  in 
conversation,  and  the  object  which  the  words  repre- 


WORDS  THE  OBJECTS  Of   THOUGHT.        IS 

sent  and  the  pictures  can  be  readily  shown.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  talk  and  questions  should  be  to  put  the 
child  in  conscious  possession  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
thing,  or  of  what  the  word  represents. 

When  the  child  has  this  knowledge,  and  not  before, 
the  teacher  may  show  him  the  sign,  i.  e.,  the  word. 

As  soon  as  tbe  word  is  presented  the  child  should 
print  it  on  his  slate.  A  little  practice  will  enable  the 
child  to  print  it  readily.  The  printing  will  fix  the 
word  in  the  mind. 

In  very  many  of  the  best  schools  in  our  cities  the 
children  are  taught  at  first  to  write  the  word  ;  not 
permitted  to  print  it  for  the  reason,  that  in  after  life 
we  use  the  script,  not  the  printed  forms. 

If  the  pupils  are  receiving,  as  they  should  be,  daily 
lessons  in  writing,  in  a  very  short  time  they  will 
be  able  to  copy  the  sentence  from  the  board  on  the 
slates. 

This  is  a  very  important  exercise,   not  only  on  ar 
count  of  the  practice  in  writing  which  it  affords,  u~ 
for  giving  the  children  something  attractive  and  use- 
ful to"  do,  and  preventing  mischievous  habits,  greatly 
lightening  the  burdens  of  disciplining  them.    The 
teacher  should  take  some  sharp  instrument  and  rule 
one  side  of  the  slate,  and  the  children  should  be  en- 
couraged to  do  the  work  neatly  and  correctly. 
Letters  and  Sounds. 

The  child  knows  nothing  of  vowels,  consonants 
and  articulation ;  nothing  about  letters,  when  he  looks 
upon  the  printed  page. 

The  word,  the  word  !  This  is  the  object  of  thought 


14  KEADfNQ. 

The  printed  word  is  the  object  presented  to  the  mind 
of  the  child.  It  is  presented  through  the  eye.  It  ia 
known  by  its  form  ;  the  child  learns  to  recognize  the 
words  by  their  forms,  as  it  learns  to  recognize  other 
objects.  The  names  of  the  letters  are  no  guides  to 
the  correct  pronounciation  of  words,  and  they  can  be 
of  no  possible  service  to  the  children  in  learning  to 
read. 

After  the  children  have  made  considerable  progress 
in  reading  words,  the  teacher  may  call  their  attention 
to  the  elementary  sounds  of  which  the  words  are 
composed. 

Combined   Method. 

Some  teachers  combine  the  Word  and  Phonic 
Methods,  and  after  the  word  is  learned  by  sight, 
teach  the  elementary  sounds.  This  is  not  necessary 
to  this  plan  of  teaching  reading,  and  if  the  teacher 
thinks  best,  may  be  omitted. 

Children  have  been  taught  to  read  in  a  very  few 
weeks  by  this  plan,  and  we  would  encourage  prim- 
ary teachers  to  try  it.  It  is  very  useful  in  cultivating 
distinctness  in  articulation,  and  in  aiding  the  chil- 
dren to  acquire  new  words. 

The  Names  ol  Letters. 

When  the  pupils  have  been  made  familiar  with  the 
words  that  have  been  taught  by  sight,  so  as  to  readily 
pronounce  them,  and  give  their  elementary  sounds, 
the  teacher  may  call  the  attention  of  the  children  to 
the  names  of  their  letters;  but  as  a  rule  the  children 
will  learn  the  names  of  the  letters  soon  enough,  with- 
out any  help  from  the  teacher. 


As  soon  as  the  letters  are  taught,  by  all  means 
show  their  use  by  putting  them  together  and  mak- 
ing the  word;  use  the  same  letters  in  forming  new 
words. 

There  is  but  little  variance  between  the  Object 
Method  and  the  Word  Method.  The  introductory 
part  is  the  same,  and  both  should  be  combined  in 
order  to  interest  the  children.  Whole  words  should 
be  presented,  and  the  pupils  required  to  pronounce 
them,  without  spelling,  by  sight.  Subsequently  the 
analysis  of  these  words  into  sounds  and  letters  may 
be  taught. 

First,  teach  words  that  are  the  names  of  things; 
then  words  representing  the  names  of  qualities  and 
actions.  The  little  connective  words  and  those  that 
are  used  as  substitutes  for  other  words,  should  not  be 
taught  until  they  are  needed  in  the  construction  of 
phrases  and  sentences. 

We  will  briefly  refer  to  the  other  methods  used  in 
teaching  children  to  read. 

The  Object  Method. 

The  children's  attention  is  first  directed  to  some 
object  with  which  they,  are  familiar  by  sight,  name 
and  use. 

The  teacher  shows  the  object  to  the  children,  and 
the  name  is  given  by  the  children.  If  they  cannot 
give  the  name,  the  teacher  tells  them.  The  teacher 
presents  a  picture  of  the  object,  or  makes  a  drawing 
of  it  upon  the  board;  then  the  name  is  plainly  writ- 
ten under  the  drawing.  The  pupils  are  now  taught 
to  distinguish  from  one  another  the  object,  the  picture 
of  it,  and  the  word  representing  it. 


16  READING. 

Steps  in  Reading  by  the  Objeet  Method. 

The  following  order  should  be  observed  in  teach- 
ing beginners  to  read  by  the  Object  Method,  as  used 
by  N.  A.  Calkins,  Assistant  Superintendent  of 
Schools  in  New  York  city : 

First  Step. — Teach  whole  words  by  sight  that  are 
already  known  by  hearing,  as  signs  of  objects,  quali- 
ties and  actions. 

Second  Step. — Teach  the  analysis  of  the  word  by 
its  elementary  sounds. 

Third  Step. — Teach  the  analysis  of  the  word  by  the 
names  of  its  letters,  and  their  order  in  spelling  it. 

Fourth  Step. — Require  the  pupils  to  pronounce  the 
word;  sound  it;  spell  it. 

Fifth  Step.—  Group  words  into  phrases  and  sent- 
ences. 

The  children  will  learn  new  words  by  comparing 
the  known  words  with  the  unknown. 
The  Phonic  Alethod. 

Every  intelligent  and  unprejudiced  mind  will  wel- 
come any  means  by  which  loose  and  bad  habits  of 
enunciation  may  be  cast  off,  and  correct  ones  formed 
in  their  stead. 

Children  who  have  been  taught  and  accustomed  to 
say  judgmunt  for  judgment,  read'n  for  reading,  an 
for  and,  muss  for  must,  parent  for  pfirent,  pass  for 
p&ss,  etc.,  will  not  be  likely,  by  a  single  effort,  to  set 
their  speech  right.  By  well  directed  and  persevering 
effort  they  can  do  it;  with  proper  guidance  and  en- 
couragement they  will  do  it.  A  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  elementary  sounds  is  essential  to  success  in  the 


THE  PHONIC  METHOD. 


Phonic  Method.  It  must  be  made  a  careful  study 
and  the  teacher  should  master  it. 

The  Phonic  Method  consists  in  making  the  learner 
acquainted  with  the  powers  of  the  letters,  so  that 
when  words  are  before  him,  he  may,  by  uttering  the 
sound  of  each  letter  in  succession,  construct,  for  him- 
self the  sound  of  the  word.  Such  a  method,  says 
John  Gill,  of  the  Normal  College,  Cheltenham,  it  is 
impossible  to  have  in  a  language  like  the  English.  A 
purely  phonic  method  is  possible  only  where  the 
number  of  letters  and  elementary  sounds  correspond, 
where  the  same  letter  always  represents  Ihe  saiiie 
soundj  and  where,  in  the  spelling  of  words,  the  num- 
ber of  letters  and  of  sounds  agree.  But  these  condi- 
tions in  English  are  impossible.  The  letters  arc  but 
five-eighths  of  the  elementary  sounds;  one  letter  often 
represents  two  or  more  sounds;  some  sounds  are  re- 
presented by  more  than  one  letter,  and  often  letters 
are  found  not  sounded  at  all. 

The  principal  advantage  of  this  method  is,  that  it 
puts  into  the  hands  of  the  children  a  key  by  which 
they  may  be  able  to  help  themselves.  The  element- 
ary sounds  must  be  known  before  the  children  can 
take  a  single  step  in  advance,  without  the  aid  of  the 
teacher.  By  following  the  word  method  strictly, 
the  child  is  unable  to  advance,  except  as  it  is  assisted 
by  the  teacher. 

The  best  results  have  been  gained  by  the  primary 
teachers  in  using  the  Phonic  Method  as  auxiliary  to 
the  Word  Method,  but  not  as  a  substitute  for  it.  The 
word  must  be  the  unit  of  thought;  it  is  the  natural 


18 


way  to  begin  with  the  units  of  language,  which  are 
words.  Language  deals  with  thoughts;  words  are 
symbols  of  thought. 

Letters  are  elements  of  the  forms  of  words;  simple 
sounds  are  the  elements  of  the  sounds  of  words; 
neither  of  these  elements  are  units  in  language.  The 
child  must  know  the  sounds  and  the  names  of  the 
letters ;  through  these  aids  it  may  be  able  to  help 
itself.  This  process,  however,  is  not  adapted  to  the 
child,  until  it  has  learned  some  words  as  wholes,  as 
units  of  language,  and  as  representations  of  thoughts. 

Another  advantage  also  is,  it  teaches  the  children 
from  the  beginning  to  enunciate  distinctly;  many 
other  advantages  are  gained  by  combining  the  Word 
and  Phonic  Methods. 

With  all  the  plans  that  have  been  considered,  let 
the  teachers  bear  in  mind  that  children  can  never 
l«arn  to  read  with  any  degree  of  ease  until  they  ar« 
able  to  call  instantly  the  words  in  the  sentence  with- 
out stopping  to  analyze  them. 

By  the  method  suggested,  children  are  enabled  to 
read  with  more  interest  and  expression  in  a  far 
shorter  time  than  by  the  plans  heretofore  generally 

pursued. 

The  Phonetic  Method. 

The  Phonic  and  Phonetic  Methods  are  distinct; 
the  phonetic  method  provides  signs  to  represent  all 
the  sounds  of  the  language,  using  the  common  letters 
each  to  denote  but  one  sound  of  that  letter,  and  pro- 
viding slight  modifications  of  these  letters  to  denote 
other  sounds.  This  method  is  used  with  success  in 
those  schools  provided  with  Leigh's  Phonetic  Reader. 


HREE  MORE  METHODS.  19 

The  Phonotypic  Method. 

This  is  another  form  of  the  Phonic  Method,  pro- 
viding a  character  or  letter  for  each  sound  in  the 
language. 

The  pupil  is  required  to  learn  forty  or  more  letters 
in  place  of  twenty-six. 

There  are  those  who  claim  that  pupils  will  learn 
both  methods,  and  become  able  to  read  better  there- 
by, in  a  given  time,  than  they  usually  do  when 
taught  entirely  from  the  common  print. 

This  method  may  be  used  with  success  ;  but,  as 
the  schools  are  not  provided  with  books  on  the 
Phonotypic  plan,  we  will  not  enlarge  upon  it. 
The  Word-Building  Method. 

Its  plan  is  to  begin  with  words  ot  one  letter,  as  A, 
I,  O,  and  gradually  form  new  words  by  prefixing  or 
affixing  single  letters .  The  child  is  taught  first  to 
pronounce  the  word,  then  the  letters  that  form  it. 
Separate  letters  of  the  alphabet  and  spelling  are 
taught  by  asking  questions  similar  to  the  following  i 

"  What  letter  is  placed  after  a  to  form  ant " 

"  What  after  an  to  form  and  ?  " 

"  What  before  and  to  form  land?  " 

The  Look-and-Say  Method. 

This  method  is  that  in  which,  after  the  children 
have  mastered  the  alphabet,  all  words  are  read  witk- 
out  spelling. 

Attention  is  directed  to  each  word  as  a  whole,  and 
kfe  sound  associated  with  it  as  a  whole. 

In  no  case  is  the  learner  allowed  to  spell  a  word 
that  he  may  afterwards  recognize  and  pronounce  it 


READING. 


The  following  things  are  advanced  in  favor  of  thi» 
method  : 

First — For  mastering  the.word  by  the  eye. 

Second— For  recognizing  the  word  in  the  sign,  and 
for  acquiring  practical  acquaintance  with  the  number 
of  letters  and  syllables. 

Third — For  its  suitability  to  the  circumstances  of 
common  schools. 

The  above  reasons  must  commend  this  method  to 
many  teachers  who  have  not  received  special  train- 
ing. -It  best  meets  the  requirements  of  class  in- 
struction. In  the  class,  the  aim  is  to  bring  out  the 
energies  of  all.  This  is  done  through  emulation  and 
self-respect. 

Now  when  spelling  is  permitted,  a  child  has  little 
inducement  to  cxdrt  itself  to  retain  a  word  once  seen ; 
but  let  spelling  be  forbidden,  let  the  re  membra  n  OP  of 
the  word  be  thrown  on  the  eye.  and  cmulatiou  will 
stimulate  some  to  retain  it,  and  to  give  it  when  called 
upon ;  and  self-respect  will  be  appealed  to  in  the 
others,  not  to  require  to  be  always  told  by  a  sharper 
companion.  It  is  a  method  which  requires  no  special 
preparation,  like  the  phonic,  and  therefore  may  be 
entrusted  to  an  inexperienced  teacher. 
The  Sentence  Method. 

In  this  method  the  teacher  does  not  begin  with  the 
letters,  nor  with  separate  words,  b*ut  with  words  in 
combination,  that  express  a  thought.  Using  this 
combination  of  words  as  a  unit,  the  separate  words 
are  learned,  as  the  separate  letters  are  learned  by  the 
Word  Method,  that  is,  without  special  effort  and  al- 
most, if  not  quite,  unconsciously. 


THE  SENTENCE  METHOD.  21 

In  teaching  this  method  let  it  be  the  aim  of  the 
teacher,  not  so  much  to  teach  separate  sounds,  letters 
and  words,  as  to  teach  and  secure  the  proper  expres- 
sion of  thought. 

The  letters  and  words  must  be  known,  but  as  they 
will  necessarily  become  known  by  this  method  with- 
out much  special  teaching,  they  are  regarded'  and 
treated  as  of  secondary  importance  for  the  time 
being. 

The  attention  of  the  childen  should  be  directed  to 
the  thought.  To  this  end,  real  objects  and  facts  are 
at  first  employed  to  appeal  to  the  senses  and  to  de- 
mand of  the  child  words  to  give  the  thought  oral 
expression. 

In  learning  to  talk,  children  acquire  ideas  from  ob- 
jects, and  then  seek  language  to  express  them.  It 
requires  a  combination  of  words  to  express  a  thought, 
"or  to  give  birth  to  a  new  idea  or  thought. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  method  over  others 
are: 

First — It  is  a  perfectly  natural  way — teaching  the 
child  to  read  very  much  as  he  learned  to  talk. 

Second — The  attention  of  the  child  is  directed  to 
the  expression  of  the  thought,  hence  he  reads  easily 
and  naturally. 

Third — It  makes  the  child  thoughtful,  hence  it 
cultivates  his  intelligence. 

Fourth — In  doing  this  work,  it  is  claimed  that  it 
accomplishes  all  that  the  other  methods  do,  without 
additional  time. 


22  BEADING. 


The   Drawing  Method, 

As  all  words  are  made  up  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  and  differ  from  each  otker  only  in  the  or- 
der and  number  of  letters,  the  first  step  in  teaching 
reading,  whatever  may  have  been  the  subsequent 
method  has  been  to  teach  the  children  these  charac- 
ters. 

Many  have  been  the  devices  to  accomplish  this,  but 
this  method  we  will  present  as  one  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful. It  is  the  Drawing  Method  ;  that  is  of  teach- 
ing the  child  to  draw  the  letter,  and  then  learn  its 
name. 

This  process  combines  from  the  first  the  two  great 
instruments  of  teaching  and  reproducing— the  former 
giving  knowledge,  and  the  latter  testing  it  and  giv- 
ing skill. 

Since  curiosity,  which  is  so  strong  in  the  child, 
seeks  its  gratification  in  finding  new  forms,  this 
method  of  drawing  can  be  used  as  a  means  of  train- 
ing his  eye  to  quickness  and  accuracy  of  observation. 
Lessons  should  be  given  upon  straight,  curved  and 
crooked  lines,  that  the  children  may  know  what  is 
meant  by  the  terms  used. 

By  actually  drawing  and  naming  the  parts  of  a 
letter,  its  form  and  name,  as  a  whole,  may  be  easily 
impressed  on  the  memory  of  the  pupil.  In  this 
manner  the  learning  of  the  alphabet,  instead  of  be- 
ing a  spiritless  task,  as  it  has  too  often  proved,  is 
exceedingly  attractive  to  the  child  and  becomes  a 
valuable  aid  in  cultivating  the  sense  of  sight. 

This  method  may  be  used  with  a  fair  degree  of 
success  in  ungraded  schools. 


TEE  ALPHA-BET  METHOD. 


The  Alphabet,  or  A  B  C  Method. 

The  children  by  this  method,  are  taught  the  names 
of  the  letters,  and  they  begin  to  spell  words  at  first ; 
this  is  a  method  of  learning  spelling  and  reading  at 
once,  or  rather  of  learning  to  read  by  learning  to 
spell.  Spelling  may  be  learned  through  reading,  but 
reading  through  spelling  NEVER.  The  attempt  to 
combine  two  things  in  one  lesson,  by  diverting  the 
learner's  attention,  interferes  with  his  progress  in 
recognizing  the  words. 

This  method  was  universally  used  years  ago,  and 
even  now  is  used  in  many  of  the  ungraded  schools.  la 
the  best  schools,  the  name  or  alphabetic  method  is 
superseded  by  some  of  the  modern  ways.  It  is  an 
imperfect  method  in  that  the  names  of  the  letters  do 
not  guide  to  the  pronunciation  of  the  word. 

Take  the  word  mat;  by  the  same  method,  the 
name  of  the  first  letter  is  em  ;  the  second  letter  is  ei 
and  the  third  tee ; — pronounced  em  a  tee ;  by  the 
phonic  it  becomes  m-a-t. 

This  method  produces  halting,  stumbling  readers, 
and  it  is  now  abandoned  by  all  good  teachers  of 
reading  ;  it  also  lays  the  foundation  for  mechanical, 
unintelligible  reading,  which  characterizes  most  of 
the  schools  where  it  is  taught. 

REMARKS. — "We  have  given  ten  different  methods 
of  teaching  reading  ;  to  those  who  have  no  method, 
we  hope  that  we  offer  one,  at  least,  that  they  may 
use  with  success. 

Give  direct  attention  to  the  primary  classes  in 
reading ;  if  a  child  is  not  taught  to  read  well  during 


84  READING. 


the  first  two  years  in  school,  he  will  probably  be  a 
poor  reader  through  life. 

Primary  Reading. 

/.  Directions. 

1.  Train  the  pupils  to  pronounce  the  words  readily 
at  sight. 

(a)  Print  or  write  the  words  on  the  board  ia 

columns  ;  pupils  pronounce  them  at  sight. 

(b)  Write  difficult  words  on  the  board,  and  sylla- 

bicate them  ;  mark  the  accented  syllables  ; 
pupils  pronounce  them. 

(c)  Require  the  pupils  to  pronounce  the  words 

forward  ;  reverse. 

(d)  Require  the  pupils  to  bring  in  a  portion  or 

all  of  the  reading  lesson  upon  the  slate ; 
pupils  read  the  lesson  from  the  slate. 

(e)  Alternate. 

//.  Cautions. 

1.  Present  to  the  pupils  only  one  difficulty  at  a 
time. 

2.  Never  permit  the  pupils  to  spell  words  in  read- 
ing. 

8.  Insist  upon  correct  articulation  and  pronuncia- 
tion, 

REMARKS. — If  the  pupils  in  the  first  lessons  of 
reading  are  taught  correctly,  they  will  not  spell 
words  audibly. 

Many  ot  the  common  faults  in  reading  may  be 
traced  to  the  improper  methods  in  use  during  the 
first  lessons  in  this  subject.  Bad  habits  at  this  period 


READ  WORDS,  NOT  LETTERS.  38 

usually  cling  to  the  pupils  during  all  their  school 
days,  and  often  seriously  affect  their  entire  future 
progress. 

The  first  lessons  in  reading  are  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, and  they  should  be  given  in  a  proper 
manner. 

To  do  this  successfully  there  must  be  a  system  in 
the  plans  pursued. 

Readiug  Words. 

The  pupils  must  be  familiar  with  the  words  of  the 
lesson,  so  that  they  can  readily  pronounce  them  at 
sight. 

The  teacher  should  introduce  a  short  preliminary 
exercise,  for  calling  the  words  at  sight,  as  follows  : 

Teacher  and  children  alternating  one  word  each  ; 
boys  and  girls  alternating  one  word  each  ',  careless 
pupils  alternating  with  class  ;  each  pupil  reading  a 
line  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

In  no  instance  should  the  teacher  let  a  pupil  stop 
to  spell  a  word.  The  plan  is  in  violation  of  the  fun- 
damental laws  of  teaching.  It  attempts  to  compel 
the  child  to  do  two  things  at  the  same  time,  and  to 
do  both  in  an  unnatural  manner,  viz.  :  to  learn  read- 
ing and  spelling  simultaneously,  and  reading  through 
spelling. 

Reading  has  to  deal  with  sounds  and  signs  of 
thoughts.  Spelling  rests  on  a  habit  of  the  eye,  which 
is  best  acquired  by  writing. 

In  attempting  to  teach  reading  through  spelling  the 
effort  distracts  the  attention  from  the  thought ;  read- 
ing furnii-b.es  facilities  for  teaching  spelling;  but  spell- 


26  READING. 


ing  does  not  furnish  a  suitable  means  for  teaching 
reading.  If  spelling  is  permitted,  a  love  of  reading 
ia  not  enkindled  ;  good  jeaders  are  not  produced. 
The  above  lesson  on  "Primary  Reading,"  if  faith- 
fully presented,  will  remedy  the  defects  and  not 
make  halting,  stumbling  readers. 

Phonics. 

The  teacher  should  be  familiar  with  the  sounds  of 
the  letters,  and  require  the  pupils  to  practise  on  them 
two  or  three  minutes  daily.  Let  it  be  a  lively  exer- 
cise, and  insist  upon  clear,  distinct  articulation. 

Difficulties. 

Attend  to  one  difficult  point  at  a  time  ;  see  that  the 
pupils  understand  it  and  are  able  to  reproduce  what- 
ever you  teach  them. 

Primary  Reading. 

Further  Directions. 

1.  Train  the  pupils  to  read  in  natural  tones. 

(a)  Request  the  pupil  to  look  off  the  book  and 

tell  what  he  reads. 

(b)  Select  a  good  reader;  request  pupils  to  imitate. 

(c)  Teacher  illustrate  how  a  sentence  should  be 

read. 

2.  The  teacher  should  illustrate  and  define  difficult 
words. 

(a)  Illustrate  by  objects,  pictures,  drawings  and 

diagrams. 

8.  No  definitions  should  be  given  to  those  words 
whose  meaning  can  be  inferred  from  the  context. 


MAKE  HASTE  SLO  WL  Y. 


4.  Every  piece  should  be  carefully  studied  before  it 
is  read  aloud. 

REMARKS.—  Reading  should  riot  be  a  mere  me- 
chanical exercise.  The  end  of  reading  is  not  tc* 
give  vocal  utterance  to  a  succession  of  words,  but  to 
give  expression  to  thought  and  feeling. 

Reading  is  the  most  important  subject  taught  in 
school.  It  is  especially  important  that  it  be 
thoroughly  taught  in  the  primary  classes.  The 
"  sing-song  drawl  "  and  the  "  nasal  twang,"  which  so 
often  prevail  in  the  school-room,  should  be  avoided. 

Almost  all  children  can  be  taught  to  read  well  ; 
they  imitate,  unconsciously  and  naturally,  the  voices 
of  their  playmates. 

Teachers  too  Ambitions. 

Many  of  the  teachers  are  too  ambitious  in  one 
direction,  that  is,  to  promote  pupils  to  higher  books, 
when  they  are  not  qualified. 

This  is  a  great  mistake.  Perhaps  three-fifths  of 
the  pupils  of  our  country  are  reading  in  books  which 
they  do  not  understand,  or  in  which  they  take  no 
interest  ;  this  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  me- 
chanical reading  ;  through  this  error  in  judgment, 
the  pupils  have  acquired  a  drawling  way,  a  lifeless, 
mechanical  style. 

Reformation  Needed. 

I  am  glad  to  admit  that  a  reformation  has  begun 
In  this  department  of  instruction,  but  it  will  need  the 
constant  and  varied  efforts  of  teachers  and  parents 
for  years  in  order  to  overcome  the  effects  that  have 
already  resulted  from  past  negligence. 


28  READING. 


Means  of  Improvement. 

Let  the  teacher  select  (from  some  book  or  maga- 
zine) a  story  which  he  will  be  sure  shall  interest  the 
pupils. 

Let  him  give  the  book  containing  it  to  a  pupil, 
asking  him  to  read  the  story  over  a  few  times,  to 
become  familiar  with  it ;  and  at  or  near  the  close 
of  school,  let  the  pupil  read  it  aloud  to  his  school- 
mates. 

As  he  reads,  do  not  discourage  him  by  too  frequent 
interruptions,  but  occasionally,  when  he  relapses  into 
a  drawl,  repeat  the  passage,  kindly,  in  a  better  way 
and  ask  him  to  notice  and  imitate  your  manner. 

When  he  has  ended,  read  to  them  yourself  some 
other  good  story,  and  let  your  style  be  worthy  of 

imitation. 

Reading  Sentences. 

Let  the  standard  for  good  reading  be  its  resem- 
blance to  good  conversation. 

The  pupils  may  be  led  to  attend  to  the  thoughts 
expressed,  by  requiring  them  to  find  out  what  the 
sentences  tell  without  reading  them  aloud.  The 
teacher  may  aid  them  by  proceeding  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  following:  Request  the  class  to  study 
the  first  sentence,  and  each  member  to  raise  a  hand 
when  able  to  tell  what  the  sentence  is  about.  Call 
upon  different  pupils  to  state,  in  their  own  language, 
what  the  sentence  tells ;  in  this  way  they  will  readily 
learn  to  read  with  easy  conversational  tones. 

Distinct  Enunciation. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  in  this  step  to  train 


THE  TEACHER  SHOULD  REAL  WELL.   29 

pupils  in  habits  of  clearness  and  distinctness  of 
enunciation  ;  also  to  read  in  an  easy,  speaking  voice. 
Overcome  the  faults  in  reading  by  taking  up  one 
kind  at  a  time,  and  continue  the  practice  until  the 
pupils  clearly  perceive  the  fault  and  take  proper 
means  to  correct  it. 

The  Teacher  Should  be  a  Good  Reader. 

As  a  requisite  essential  to  success,  the  teacher 
of  reading  should  be  a  good  reader.  With  proper 
management  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  make  children 
read  well,  and  even  the  teacher  that  is  a  tolerable 
reader  may  teach  pupils  to  read.  That  children 
have  learned  to  read  under  such  teachers  I  am  will- 
ing to  admit,  because  the  fact  is  evident ;  but  that 
they  have  been  taught  by  their  masters  1  do  not 
admit,  for  it  is  impossible  for  any  person  to  teach 
•well  what  he  does  not  understand. 

If  a  child  has  sometimes  learned  to  read  under  an 
incompetent  instructor,  it  has  been,  not  because  of 
the  teacher,  but  in  spite  of  him  ;  and  the  question  is, 
not  how  much  has  he  learned,  but  how  much  would 
he  have  learned  had  the  teacher  been  qualified  to 

teach  him. 

Difficult  Words. 

The  young  pupil's  knowledge  of  J;he  meaning  of 
words  is  limited.  One  object  of  reading  is  to  increase 
the  knowledge  of  words.  No  definition  should  be 
given  to  those  words  whose  meaning  can  be  inferred 
from  the  context. 

Resource  should  be  had  to  a  dictionary  only  when 
he  cannot  think  out  the  meaning  from  the  context 


90  READING. 


The  child  learns  the  meaning  of  words  by  hearing 
them  used — seldom  by  formal  definition. 

The  teacher  may  impress  the  idea  by  resorting  to 
objects,  this  is  the  natural  way.  Sometimes  pictures 
may  be  at  hand  to  throw  light  upon  the  word  ;  again, 
a  drawing  may  be  given  at  the  board  to  illustrate  the 
meaning  of  the  word. 

Defining  Words  in  Primary  Classes. 

In  no  case  should  a  definition  be  committed  to 
memory  and  mechanically  recited. 

The  meaning  should  be  inferred  from  the  context, 
and  the  pupil  requested  to  use  the  word  correctly  in 
a  short  sentence. 

Let  the  pupil  tell  what  the  word  means  in  his  own 
language. 

A  definition  is  a  general  truth,  a  deduction  ;  chil- 
dren should  be  taught  primary  truths,  and,  as  their 
reason  develops,  deduce  the  definitions,  rules  and 
principles.  Develop  correct  ideas,  then  give  defini- 
tions. We  must  not  encourage  teachers  to  require 
pupils  to  commit  the  definitions  to  memory  in  the 
primary  reading  books.  But  we  would  insist  that 
the  pupils  understand  the  meaning  of  the  words  used. 

.  *' Mind  the  Pauses." 

Teachers  sometimes  instruct  pupils  to  stop  and 
count  "one"  at  a  comma,  "one,  two,"  at  a  semi- 
colon. This  leads  to  a  mechanical,  unnatural  style 
»f  reading.  First  attend  to  the  reading  of  sentences, 
and  lead  the  pupils  to  see  how  the  pauses  aid  in 
understanding  the  meaning.  Do  not  teach  reading 


QUALITIES  OF  THE  VOICE.  31 

as  if  attention  to  "pauses"  were  the  chief  object  to 
be  attained. 

Reciting  definitions  of  pauses  is  not  only  useless 
but  it  leads  to  a  great  waste  of  time.  Teach  the  use 
of  the  pauses  in  the  lesson,  instead  of  the  definition 
of  them.  A  few  teachers  pay  no  attention  to  the 
explanation  of  the  words,  but  turn  their  attention 
almost  entirely  to  the  names  and  the  pronunciation  ; 
important  points,  to  be  sure,  but  by  no  means  the 
Hfe-giving  elements  of  good  reading. 

Qualities  of  the  Voice. 

Pure  Tone — It  is  a  clear,  full  and  cheerful  tone.  It 
is  the  language- of  common  conversation. 

Rotund  Tone — It  is  the  pure  tone,  rounded,  deep- 
ened and  intensified.  It  is  the  language  of  sublimity, 
grandeur,  awe  and  reverence. 

Aspirate  Tone — It  is  whispered  utterance.  It  is  the 
language  of  hate,  fear  and  secrecy. 

Guttural  Tone — It  is  a  sepulchral  tone  and  has  ita 
resonance  in  the  throat.  It  fe  the  language  of  hate, 
rage  and  contempt. 

Pectoral  Tone — It  is  low  pure  tone.  It  is  the  lan- 
guage of  deep  feeling,  sorrow. 

Falsetto  Tone— It  is  a  very  high  tone.  It  is  the 
language  of  irritabijity,  etc. 

Emphasis. 

Definition. 

1.  A  particular  stress  of  voice  given  to  certain 
words,  or  parts  of  a  discourse  ;  a  distinctive  utterance 
of  words  specially  significant. 


82  READING. 


Constitute  the  Emphatic   Word  or  Words. 

1.  A  new  idea  or  fact,  one  now  presented  for  the 
first  time,  constitutes  the  emphatic  word  or  words. 

2.  That  which  presents  no  new  or  dominant  fact 
or  thought,  is  the  unemphatic  clause. 

Characteristics  that  Mark  Unemphatic  Clauses. 

1.  Repetition. 

2.  Anticipation. 

3.  Sequence. 

4.  Subordination. 

5.  Knowledge  beforehand. 

Rules  in  Reading. 

Do  not  require  children  to  commit  the  rules  to 
memory  in  reading.  They  are  hindrances  instead  of 
helps.  If  the  teachers  know  how  to  read,  those  aids 
in  which  many  school-books  abound,  are  worse  than 
useless,  because  positively  injurious. 

The  competent  teacher  needs  but  two  rules  by 
which  to  be  guided  in  teaching  the  pupils  to  read  : 

First — Make  the  pupils  understand  what  is  to  be 
read. 

Second — Require  them  to  read  naturally,  To 
expect  a  child  to  read  what  it.  does  not  understand 
is  unreasonable,  and  yet  nothing  is  more  common. 
.  It  is  idle  to  put  marks,  rules  and  directions  whether 
by  words  or  characters,  into  books  intended  to  be 
read  by  children,  for  the  reason  that  they  seldom  or 
never  use  them. 


READING.  33 


Special  Preparation  for  Reading, 

The  teacher  should  carefully  study  the  reading 
lesson  ;  should  be  familiar  with  the  pronunciation  of 
every  word,  including  its  literal  and  its  received 
meaning.  He  should  give  the  pupils  the  history  of 
the  author  and  some  of  his  prominent  characteristics, 
— this  will  add  to  -the  interest.  Should  awaken 
thought  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils, — this  will  secure 
interest.  It  matters  not  how  simple  the  lesson  may 
be,  previous  preparation  is  indispensable.  Previous 
study  will  add  new  power  and  generate  better 
methods  by  means  of  which  success  will  be  insured 
The  teacher  will  become  independent,  self-reliant; 
and  a  "law  unto  himself." 

Intermediate  Reading. 

7.  Directions. 

1.  Teach  and  train  the  pupils  to  understand. 
(a)  The  prominent  objects  mentioned. 
(6)  The  prominent  facts  mentioned  concerning 
the  object. 

(c)  What  they  read,  and  to  be  able  to  tell  the 

story,  or  the  principal  facts  in  the  lesson. 

(d)  The  connected  thought,   and  to  express  it 

orally  and  written. 

//.  Cautions. 

1.  Attend  to  one  subject  of  criticism  at   a  time, 
and  require  pupils  to  correct. 

2.  Practice  on  one  sentence  at  a'  time. 

3.  See  that  all  the  pupils  understand  the  thought, 
and  are  able  to  express  it. 

4.  Examine  the  subject  carefully  before  reading. 


84  READING. 

III.  Results. 

The  pupils  in  the  Intermediate  Classes  in  Reading 
should  be  able — 

1.  To  pronounce  the  words  accurately. 

2.  To  define  the  words. 

3.  To  understand  the  subject-matter. 

4.  To  explain  the  language. 

5.  To  account  for  marks  of  punctuation. 

6.  To  point  out  what  is  true,  beautiful  and  good 
in  the  sentiment. 

7.  To  show  the  manner  of   delivery,  and  give 
reason  for  it. 

REMARKS. — The  number  of  those  who  c'an  be 
properly  called  good  readers  in  our  schools,  is  small ; 
but  how  large  is  the  number  who  can  read  quite 
indifferently,  or  very  poorly. 

As  a  general  thing  it  must  be  admitted  that  read- 
ing has  not  been  well  taught  in  our  schools.  It  has 
received  formal  attention  and  frequent  inattention. 
Time  enough  is  given  to  the  exercise,  but  not  enough 

attention. 

Intellectual  Exercise. 

The  elocutionary  part  of  reading  should  receive 
but  Iktle  attention  in  the  intermediate  classes.  With 
so  many  pupils  under  your  training,  it  cannot  be 
expected  that  you  will  go  into  all  the  minutiae  of 
elocutionary  drill.  Your  aim  must  be  to  teach  well 
what  you  undertake  to  teach.  You  cannot  even 
hope  to  make  all  your  pupils  accomplished  elo- 
cutionists, but  you  can  make  them  good  ana 
intelligent  readers.  When  you  find  a  pupil  that 


A  MODEL  LESSON.  86 

takes  to  elocution  it  may  be  well  to  encourage  it, 
bat  not  to  the  neglect  nor  the  expense  of  other  sub- 
jects of  instruction.  It  may  be  asked,  what  is  good 
reading?  I  call  that  good  reading  when  a  person 
reads  distinctly,  gives  the  sense  with  such  intonation 
and  emphasis  as  to  be  pleasant  to  the  hearer,  and  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  be  easily  heard  and  readily 
understood. 

Take,  for  example,  the  following  beautiful  selec- 
tion, and  see  how  many  pertinent  questions  may  be 
asked  in  reference  to  it : 

Nelly. 
Nelly  sat  under  the  apple  tree, 

And  watched  the  shadows  of  leaves  at  play, 
And  heard  the  ham  of  the  honey  bee, 

Gathering  sweets  through  the  sunny  day. 

Nelly's  brown  hands  in  her  lap  were  laid  ; 

Her  head  inclined  wkh  a  gentle  grace  ; 
A  wandering  squirrel  was  not  afraid 

To  stop  and  peer  in  her  quiet  face. 

Nelly  was  full  of  a  pure  delight, 

Born  of  the  beauty  of  earth  and  sky, 
Of  the  wavering  boughs,  and  the  sunshine  bright. 

And  the  snowy  clouds  that  went  sailing  by. 

Nelly  forgot  that  her  dress  was  old, 

Her  hands  were  rough  and  her  feet  were  bare  ; 
For  round  her.  the  sunlight  poured  its  gold, 

And  her  cLeeks  were  kissed  by  the  summer  air. 

And  the  distant  hills  in  their  glory  lay, 
And  soft  to  her  ear  came  the  robin's  call : 


86  HEALING. 

'Twae  sweet  to  live  on  that  summer  day, 
For  the  smile  of  God  was  over  all.' 

And  Nelly  was  learning  the  lesson  sweet 

That  when  the  spirit  is  full  of  care, 
And  we  long  our  father  and  God  to  meet, 

We  may  go  to  nature,  and  find  him  there. 

1.  Where  did  Nelly  sit  ? 

2.  What  two  things  did  she  do  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  leaves  at  play  f 

4.  What  were  the  bees  doing  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  Nelly's  hands  ? 

6.  What  is  said  of  her  head  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  squirrel  ? 

8.  Of  what  was  Nelly  full  ? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  being  full  of  pure  delight  ? 

10.  Of  what  four  things  was  it  born? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  being  born  of  these  things  ? 

12.  What  did  Nelly  forget  ? 

13.  Why  did  she  iovget  these  things  ? 

14.  What  is  meant  by  the  sunlight  pouring  its 
gold  ? 

15.  What  is  meant  by  kissed  by  the  summer  air  ? 

16.  What  is  said  of  the  distant  hills  ? 

17.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  in  their  glory  lay? 

18.  What  is  said  of  the  robin? 

19.  Why  was  it  sweet  to  live  on  that  summer  day  ? 

20.  What  lesson  was  Nelly  learning? 

21.  What  is  the  meaning  of  gathering  ?    Inclined  f 
Peer  f    Boughs  ?    Nature  ? 

22.  Mske  sentences  in  which  those  words  in  some 
of  their  forms  shall  be  used  correctly. 


RHETORICAL  DIVISIONS.  87 

23.  Write  a  short  composition  about  Nelly. 

DIRECTIONS.  —  The  piece  is  descriptive  and  should 
be  so  read  as  to  give  the  hearer  a  clear  idea  of  the 
scenes  described.  State  each  thing  mentioned  as 
though  you  were  telling  some  person  what  you  had 
seen. 

The  frequent  or  occasional  study  of  reading 
lessons  in  this  manner  will  be  attended  with  two 
advantages.  The  pupils  will  read  them  better,  for 
they  will  have  a  sympathy  for  the  author,  and  a 
more  intelligent  perception  of  the  meaning. 

The  answering  of  the  question  will  -prove  very 
serviceable,  by  unfolding  the  sense  of  the  piece,  and 
thus  enabling  one  to  read  it  more  understandingly. 
It  will  produce  t?ioughl,  and  whenever  we  produce 
thought  we  secure  interest. 

In  intermediate  classes  constant  attention  should 
be  given  to  punctuation,  accent,  inflection,  emphasis 
and  correct  pronunciation. 

Explanations  of  historical,  biographical  or  scien- 
tific allusions,  should  be  given  by  the  teacher  and 
reviewed  in  subsequent  recitations. 

Rhetorical  Division  of  Language* 

(tt   Letters. 


A.  Compositio,, 


'1.  Prose, 

j  b.  Dialogues. 
{  c.  History. 
|  d.  Essays. 

iand 

{e.  Orations,  e 

2.  Poetry. 

15.  Lyric, 
c.  Epic. 
d.  Dramatic. 
e.  Elegy. 

39  HEADING. 

SI.  Humorous. 
2.  Pathetic. 
3.  Sublime. 


(1. 

B.    -     ^2. 
3. 


Narrative. 

C.  Discourse.    -     -{2.  Descriptive. 
Didactic. 


NOTE. — The  teacher  in  the  higher  classes  should 
train  the  pupils  on  the  above.  Let  them  tell  the 
difference  between  prose  and  poetry ;  the  subject 
matter  and  the  discourse. 

General  Remarks  on  Reading. 

No  subject  is  of  more  importance  than  how  to 
teach  Reading  understandingly.  Good  reading  ia 
calculated  to  develop  the  mind,  the  body  and  the 
imagination.  Although  so  important,  yet  how  sa«Hy 
neglected  is  the  power  of  reading.  Teachers  are 
able  to  give  the  definitions  of  Arithmetic,  Geography 
and  Grammar,  but  few  can  give  an  intelligent  defi- 
nition of  reading. 

Elocution  is  the  art  of  speaking  so  as  to  be  heard, 
so  as  to  be  felt,  so  as  to  impress.  The  first  essential 
is  to  speak  or  read  so  as  to  be  heard  distinctly.  Never 
speak  above  or  below  your  natural  voice  ;  if  you  d« 
BO,  the  effect  will  be  lost.  The  three  great  rules  that 
all  should  observe  in  reading  or  speaking,  are  :  "  Be 
sure  you  have  something  to  say  ;  be  careful  how  you 
Bay  it ;  and  stop  when  you  are  done."  Speak  so  that 
the  listener  may  understand  you  ;  speak  so  as  to  be 
felt,  hence  be  in  earnest ;  if  you  do  not  feel  what 
you  say,  you  cannot  expect  your  hearers  to  have  any 
feeling. 


CORRECT  SPECIAL  FA  ULTS.  39 

now  may  yon  Teach  so  as  to  Carry  Oat 
these  Conditions. 

We  answer,  study  so  as  to  thoroughly  understand 
what  you  teach.  If  you  do  not  know  what  is  re- 
quired, you  are  not  qualified  to  teach,  and  in  order  to 
become  qualified  you  must  listen  to  good  examples. 

Attend  to  Faults. 

If  you  have  a  fault,  attend  to  it,  overcome  it  by 
practice.  Much  time  must  be  taken  in  correcting 
bad  habits  of  reading,  but  you  must  take  the  time. 
But  whatever  you  do,  be  sure  to  teach  the  pupils  to 
do  it  in  the  right  way.  If  the  teacher  wishes  to 
succeed  he  must  learn  how  intonation  and  articula- 
tion are  to  be  taught.  Before  he  can  teach  it  he  must 
learn  it.  It  can  only  be  acquired  through  study. 

Rules  hi  books  might  as  well  be  omitted  ;  correct 
reading  must  be  taught  by  example.  The  object  of 
teaching  reading  is  to  make  good  readers.  Before 
good  reading  and  good  speaking  can  be  taught  it  is 
necessary  to  learn  how  to  articulate  distinctly  and 
pronounce  correctly.  If  you  are  careless  in  one 
single  point,  your  pupils  will  be  careless  not  only  on 
that  point  but  on  others. 

In  reading  you  must  give  each  sound  its  true  value. 
The  requirements  in  reading  are  two- fold  : 

First — To  express  rightly  what  you  read,  and 

Second — To  do  this  pleasantly  and  naturally.  A 
perfect  understanding  of  what  you  read  is  the  founda- 
tion ;  you  must  understand  the  thoughts  of  the  author 
and  make  the  thoughts  your  own. 


40  HEADING. 

It  is  the  exception  to  find  good  readers  in  our 
schools  ;  the  reason  is  because  pupils  are  not  required 
to  study  the  lesson  as  in  other  branches. 

Expression. 

This  adds  force,  meaning,  beauty  and  power  to  the 
passage.  After  the  pupils  can  speak  distinctly,  they 
should  be  taught  to  express  the  sense,  to  give  the 
exact  meaning.  In  no  other  way  can  this  be  taught, 
than  through  study  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  They 
must  read  and  think. 

Posture. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  how  to  stand,  and  they 
should  not  be  allowed  to  utter  a  word  until  they 
assume  a  position  to  give  full  force  to  their  utterance  ; 
they  should  not  be  allowed  to  appear  awkward, 

Do  not  allow  your  pupils  to  mumble  words,  smother 
sounds  and  destroy  the  sense  of  a  passage. 

The  position  should  be  perfectly  easy,  natural  and 
graceful ;  the  posture  should  indicate  the  sentence  to 
be  spoken.  Insist  upon  your  pupils  always  taking  an 
easy,  graceful  and  gentlemanly  or  ladylike  position 
in  reading  or  speaking. 

Breath. 

Another  important  point  is  to  know  how  to  breathe 
properly.  It  is  well  to  exercise  the  lungs  before  we 
commence  to  read.  The  power  of  the  reader  or 
speaker  consists  in  having  perfect  control  of  hia 
breathing,  so  as  to  utter  his  words  in  a  proper  and 
most  effective  manner.  It  is  only  when  you  have 
perfect  control  of  the  breathing  that  you  can  give 
full  expression  to  words  and  sentences. 


HOW  TO  SUCCEED.  41 

How  to  Cain  Success  in  Reading. 

The  surest  way  to  attain  success  in  reading  is  to 
begin  to  develop  thought.  Reading  may  be  reduced 
to  a  few  general  rules,  namely :  You  must  com- 
mence al  the  right  place — at  the  beginning  ;  go  in 
the  right  direction  ;  have  a  high  standard  in  view  ; 
be  perfectly  natural ;  cultivate  by  all  means  natural- 
ness. If  the  pupils  have  unnatural  tones,  make 
them  repeat  after  you  sentences  and  whole  passages. 
This  will  insure  correct  pronunciation,  distinctness 
of  utterance  and  expression. 

Let  me  caution  you  against  placing  dependence 
upon  rules  of  inflection  of  the  voice  given  in  reading 
books.  All  that  you  need  is  to  fully  understand  the 
thought ;  when  you  have  the  thought  fully,  you  will 
know  all  about  inflection  of  the  voice.  If  a  person 
cannot  translate  what  he  reads  into  his  own  language, 
he  most  assuredly  does  not  understand  it.  If  you 
cannot  bring  out  in  your  own  languge  the  full  mean- 
ing of  the  lesson,  you  are  not  the  one  to  teach,  and 
you  should  either  adopt  some  other  avocation,  or  go 
through  a  rigid  course  of  reading. 

A  great  deal  of  teaching  in  reading  is  a  positive 
injury  to  schools,  and  all  because  the  teacher  does 
not  know  how  to  teach.  "  Practice  makes  perfect ;  " 
rapidity  and  correctness  are  attained  only  through 
frequent  repetition.  No  one  ever  arrives  at  distinc- 
tion by  sitting  with  arms  folded  ;  you  must  be  will- 
ing to  think,  to  exercise,  to  labor.  It  is  not  an  easy 
thing  to  become  a  good  reader,  it  is  only  acquired 
through  practice — continual  practice.  There  is  no 
other  way  than  through  practice. 


42  READING. 


The  following  rules  are  taken  from  "  Kidd's  Elo- 
cution." They  should  be  carefully  studied  and 
practiced. 

First— Understand  well  what  is  read. 

Second — See  to  it  that  pupils  never  read  without 
fulfilling  the  conditions  of  proper  position  and  pos- 
ture. 

Make  them  take  the  position  God  intended  them  t® 
take;  train,  not  teach;  there  is  a  difference  between 
the  two. 

Third— Insist  upon  frequent  and  natural  breathinf . 
Good  brealhing  is  essential  to  health. 

Fourth — Reach  the  heart  of  the  pupil.  This  ia 
done  by  interesting  them  ;  by  making  them  under- 
s^and  what  they  read. 

Fifth—  Cultivate  a  perfectly  easy,  distinct  and 
natural  voice,  avoid  all  labored  efforts  ;  let  the  voice 
come  out  full.  Let  pronunciation  be  correct,  inflec- 
tion natural  ;  give  the  best  models,  but  never  rules. 
Make  pupils  repeat  the  pronunciation  of  words  they 
are  in  the  habit  of  mis-pronouncing.  Modulation 
and  intonation  should  be  varied  but  always  natural. 

Sixth — Have  your  pupils  speak  with  naturalness. 
If  the  subject  be  understood  any  one  will  speak 
naturally.  Train  them  to  speak  by  the  highest 
standard  they  possess. 

Seventh — Be  in  earnest.  If  the  pupil  haa  not  an 
earnest  manner,  it  proves  that  he  does  not  understand 
his  subject. 


MECHANICAL  READING. 


These  Conditions  are  Absolutely  Necessary  to 
Success  in  Reading. 

Teacher,  whatever  else  you  may  teach,  do  not 
consider  the  reading  exercise  an  unimportant  one. 
Teach  and  train  the  pupils  to  be  readers.  It  is  the 
art  of  arts,  and  in  it  are  the  germs  of  growth  and 
development 

We  read  in  the  Bible  at  the  eighth  chapter  of 
Nehemiah,  eighth  verse,  how  they  used  to  read  in 
olden  times: 

"  So  they  read  in  the  book  in  the  law  of  God  dis- 
tifictly,  and  gave  the  sense,  and  caused  them' to  un- 
derstand the  reading." 

There  are  different  kinds  of  reading,  which  are 
also  often  confounded  ;  mechanical  reading  ;  intelli- 
gent reading ;  and  intellectual  reading. 

Mechanical  reading,  per  se,  is  no  reading  at  all ;  it 
is  but  a  form  of  voice-training.  It  may  include 
pronunciation,  articulation,  enunciation,  inflection, 
tone,  pause,  harmony,  rhythm,  and  emphasis.  A 
child  may  learn  every  one  of  these,  in  a  foreign  lan- 
guage,— learn  them  to  perfection,  it  he  be  well  drilled 
in  them  by  means  of  directions  and  imitation,  and 
yet  not  understand  one  word  of  what  he  reads  while 
he  gives  them. 

An  intelligent  reader  is  one  who  understands  what 
he  reads,  who  takes  in  the  author's  thought.  There 
are  various  degrees  in  intelligent  reading.  One  per- 
son takes  in  the  author's  thought  very  vaguely 
another  much  more  clearly,  another  quite  clearly  and 
definitely.  It  is  not  possible  for  a  young  child  to  be 


44  READING. 


more  than  an  intelligent  reader,  but  as  he  grows  older 
he  should  become  more  ;  yet  how  many  adults  there 
are  who  never  get  beyond  the  child's  power  of  read- 
ing. Take,  for  instance,  the  well-informed  man  who 
.  never  will  be  wise  ;  he  is  eminently  an  intelligent 
reader,  but  there  is  no  hope  for  him  that  he  will  ever 
become  an  intellectual  reader. 

Intellectual  reading  is  not  only  a  taking  in,  clearly 
and  definitely,  of  the  author's  meaning,  but  it  is  also 
a  ready  recognition  of  the  relation  of  that  meaning, 
a  prompt  assimilation  of  it,  and  a  consequent  growth. 
This  is  the  kind  of  reading  that  reigns  in  the  stu- 
dent's den  and  the  philosopher's  study.  That  man 
who  has  the  original  power,  or  the  acquired  habit, 
which  is  often  more  than  an  equivalent  for  the  origi- 
nal power,  to  grasp  readily  and  clearly  the  meaning 
of  what  he  reads,  is  always  one  whom  all  others 
envy.  And  yet  this  power,  valuable  beyond  calcu- 
lation, may  be  given  to  each  child  in  our  schools,  if 
we  can  but  find  the  right  way  to  secure  It  for  him. 

The  question  then  is  :  How  shall  we  train  our 
children  so  that  they  shall  become  not  only  intelli- 
gent but  intellectual  readers?— so  that  they  shall 
become  not  only  intellectual  silent  readers,  but  also 
accomplished  oral  readers  ? 

By  assigning  to  the  lesson  in  voice-training  all 
those  exercises  which  pertain  to  voice-culture  and 
discipline  of  the  organs,  also  drill  in  pronunciation 
and  a  consideration  of  emphasis  and  pauses,  illus- 
trated by  mistakes  taken  from  yesterday's  lesson  and 
difficulties  in  to-day's,  we  shall  relieve  the  reading 


DO  NOT  PERMIT  INTERRUPTION.  45 


lesson  proper  of  the  necessity  of  taking  note  of -all 
that  machinery  which  produces  effect,  and  leave  the 
teacher  and  class  time  and  opportunity  to  study  the 
thought  the  passage  contains,  and  to  give  it  a  free 
and  natural  expression.  Let  it  be  understood  by  the 
class  as  well  as  the  teacher,  that  the  reading  lesson 
should  be  a  clear,  clean-cut  process  of  thought  carried 
on  to  expression,  and  should  not  be  interrupted  by 
continued,  trivial  and  harrassing  corrections.  What 
is  more  painful  than  to  see  a  child  rise  in  his  class, 
full  of  the  thought  the  passxge  contains,  confident  in 
his  power  to  give  it  good  expression,  his  eye  a-kindle 
and  his  cheeks  aglow,  and  then  to  see  him  suddenly 
brought  to  a  blank  stand-still  by  a  dozen  upraised 
hands  and  snapping  fingers,  because,  forsooth,  he 
has  omitted  an  "  a,"  or  a  "  the,"  or  miscalled  some 
simple  word  he  knew  quite  well,  or  skipped  some 
useless  comma  ? 

Where  such  practices  are  allowed,  the  reading- 
lesson  becomes  a  mere  game  in  pronunciation,  and  a 
correct  handling  of  the  voice  according  to  rules. 
Such  games  are  good  to  make  the  children  keen- 
sighted,  quick-thoughted,  and  correct  ;  but  their  place 
is  not  in  the  reading-lesson,  and  if  we  keep  them 
there  we  shall  go  on  forever  teaching  only  words, 
words,  words.  . 

Let  us  have  first  the  thought,  then  the  expression, 
and  last  and  least,  the  mechanical  defects.  Better 
that  the  thought  should  be  full-born,  and  clothed  in 
garments  with  here  and  there  a  rent,  than  that  it 
should  be  still-born  and  the  garments  without  a  flaw. 


46  READING. 


As  in  language,  the  thought  is  the  root  of  which 
the  word  is  the  blossom,  so  in  reading,  an  under 
standing  of  the  author's  meaning  is  the  root  of  which 
oral  reading  is  the  blossom.  If,  then,  we  find  our 
blossoms  defective,  it  behooves  us  to  look  to  the 
condition  of  the  roots. 

But  what  method  will  help  us  here  ?  How  can  we 
make  sure  that  a  child  understands  what  he  reads? 
Children  imitate  so  easily,  and  habit  counterfeits 
nature  so  closely,  how  can  we  be  sure  that  we  are 
not  misled?  Only  by  studying  the  lesson  with 
children  ;  only  by  having  before  every  reading-lessoa 
a  language-lesson  upon  the  subject-matter  of  the 
reading  ;  only  by  compelling  the  children,  by  means 
of  questions,  to  think,  to  reason,  and  to  express.  To 
express  the  thoughts  of  the  lesson/first  in  their  own 
words,  and  then  in  the  words  of  the  book  ;  also, 
whenever  the  subject-matter  may  be,  from  any  cause 
•whatsoever,  vague  to  the  children's  minds,  by  illus- 
trating it  with  objects,  with  pictures, — printed  pic- 
tores,  and  outline  pictures  drawn  upon  the  black- 
board, and  with  what  the  English  training-school* 
call  "  picturing  out  wordi." 


PHONICS. 


This  important  subject  receives  but-little  attention 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  country.  Why  it  is 
omitted,  when  it  adds  so  much  beauty  to  expression, 
is  a  question  unanswered  by  thousands. 

The  object  of  teaching  this  subject  should  be — 

First — To  train  the  organs  of  hearing  so  that  the 
children  may  readily  distinguish  the  sounds  heard  in 
speaking  and  reading. 

Second — To  train  the  organs  of  hearing  so  that  the 
pupils  may  learn  to  produce  the  sounds  correctly  in 
«sing  language.  To  acquire  an  articulation  which, 
shall  be  at  once  accurate  and  tasteful,  it  is  necessary  : 

1.  To  obtain  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  elementary 
sounds  of  the  language. 

2.  To  learn  the  appropriate  place  of  these  sounds. 

8.  To  apply  this  knowledge  constantly  in  convers- 
ing, reading  and  speaking,  with  a  view  to  correct 
every  deviation  from  propriety  which  we  may  detect 
in  expressing  them. 

A  good  articulation  is  not  to  be  acquired  in  a  day, 
nor  from  a  few  lessons.  Practice  should  begin  with 
the  alphabet,  and  continue  through  the  whole  course 
of  education,  and  even  then  there  will  remain  room 
for  improvement 


48  PHONICS. 


Great  care  should  be  taken  in  giving  these  lessons, 
that  the  class  repeat  each  exercise  until  all  the  pupils 
can  make  every  sound  and  combination  which  it 
contains,  readily  and  perfectly. 

The  teacher  should  make  the  sounds,  and  then 
require  the  pupils  to  imitate  them.  The  pupils 
should  stand  or  sit  erect,  and  use  the  natural  tones 
of  the  voice.  Only  one  or  two  sounds  should  be 
taken  for  a  lesson. 

The  exercise  should  not  continue  more  than  five 
minutes ;  it  may  be  introduced  in  the  reading  or 
spelling  exercise,  or  the  whole  school  may  join  in  it. 

Tell  the  children  "  to  open  the  mouth  and  move 
the  lips,"  to  speak  distinctly  and  to  enunciate  every 
sound  perfectly.  Time  should  not  be  wasted  in  the 
endeavor  to  teach  children  definitions  or  descrip- 
tions of  the  various  sounds  of  the  letters.  The  chief 
aim  should  be  to  train  the  organs  of  hearing  to 
acuteness,  and  the  organs  of  speech  to  flexibility  and 
accuracy. 

Notation  Marks  or  Diacritical  Signs. 

The  pupils  should  be  taught  the  correct  sounds 
and  the  signification  of  the  different  marks.  All  the 
vowels  and  many  of  the  consonants  have  marks  to 
distinguish  their  sounds. 

After  a  sound  is  learned  the  teacher  should  write 
the  letter  on  the  board  with  its  proper  mark.  The 
pupils  should  be  required  to  copy  and  to  reproduce 
every  exercise.  Let  the  drill  be  thorough. 

Tell  the  pupils  that  when  a  short  horizontal  line  is 
placed  above  the  vowels— called  the  macron— it  indi- 


SUGGESTIONS. 


cates  the  long  sound ;  that  a  short  curved  line  with 
curve  downward  placed  above  the  vowels— called 
a  breve—  indicates  the  short  sound ;  that  two  dots 
placed  above  the  letter  a  indicate  the  Italian  sound, 
etc. 

We  find  but  verj  few  teachers  who  are  able  to 
give  all  the  sounds  of  the  English  language  correctly, 
and  many  are  unable  to  tell  the  kind  of  a  mark  or 
sign  that  indicates  a  certain  sound. 

It  requires  study  and  practice.  We  need  not 
expect  distinct  speaking  so  long  as  we  neglect  this 

important  art. 

Suggestions. 

1.  Train  the   organs  of   hearing    to    distinguish 
readily  and  accurately  the  different  sounds  of  lan- 
guage. 

2.  Train  the  organs  of  speech   to  produce  these 
sounds  with  ease  and  accuracy. 

3.  Train  the  pupils  to  the  correction  of  faults  of 
enunciation  and  pronunciation  in  reading  and  speak- 
ing. 

4.  Train  pupils  in  every  lesson  upon  the  elements. 

5.  Master  the  analysis  before  you  attempt  to  teach 
it. 

6.  Let  the  drill  be  accurate. 

The  following  pages  are  taken  by  permission  from 
Hoose's  "  Studies  in  Articulation,"  a  valuable  book 
upon  the  subject,  published  by  Davis,  Bardeen  &Co., 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.  Price  50  cts.  The  same  firm  have 
recently  published  "  De  Graff's  Practical  Phonics  for 
the  School-Room."  Price,  in  paper,  25  cts.,  in  cloth, 
50  cts.,  by  the  author  of  this  volume. 


50  PHONICS. 

VOWELS  =  TONIC  ELEMENTS. 


1.  Long  a  =  a+e  =  e  =  ey  =  ao  =  au 
=  ea  =  ay  =  ei  =  ai  =  aiyh  =  eigh  =  alf= 
a  compound,  or  diphthongal  sound,  with  its 
radical  or  initial  tone  in  &-le,  and  the  close 
or  vanish  in  e-ve:  the  vanish  is  not  heard 
until  the  mouth  begins  to  close  while  attempt- 
ing to  prolong  the  radical,  thus  throwing  the 
tongue  up  towards  the  roof  of  the  mouth, 
which  changes  the  tone  into  the  vanish  in  e. 

Both  initial  and  vanish  are  capable  of  in- 
definite prolongation;  yet  for  a  the  vanish 
must  be  very  brief. 

NOTE.  —  When  used  as  a  word,  and  unemphatic,  a  has 
a  very  brief  sound,  approaching  to  that  of  u,  or  8,  or 
possibly  e. 

FOR  PRACTICE. 

1.   ale,  fate,  Kate,  hate,  mate,  gray,  gate,  re. 
8.  prate,  reign,  eight,  ratio,  neigh,  amen,  slain, 

straight. 
S.   chamber,   squalor,   main,  aid,   tiara,  yea, 

pain,  obey,  wraith,  player,  apparatus,  pa- 


YOWHL  SOUNDS. 


Iron,  strata,  patriotic,  aye,  Dey,  heinous, 
say,  tomato,  bate,  whey,  data,  caret,  slate, 
gauge,  gaol,  jail,  day,  break,  veil,  grey,  pray- 
er, shaik,  half-penny,  sleigh,  ray,  strait, 
daze,  prey,  graze,  rajah,  prays,  rail,  pale. 


2.  Short  a  =  ai  =  ua  =  al  =  aa  =  a  sim- 
ple element.  Yet  a  better  study  of  it  is  given 
by  Eush,  who  considers  it  =  a+e-rr  =  a 
compound  sound,  the  initial  in  &-t,  and  the 
vanish  in  e-?r.  This  appears  more  clearly  if 
the  tone,  a,  be  inflected  either  upwards  or 
downwards :  the  vanish  is  heard  only  at  the 
very  closing  of  the  sound,  as  the  vocal  or- 
gans begin  to  relax  their  tension.  The  van- 
ish is  very  shprt;  the  radical  is  incapable 
of  being  prolonged,  and  is  to  be  uttered  with 
staccato  brevity.  The  tongue  is  raised  not 
so  high  as  for  e,  and  higher  than  for  a ;  the 
mouth  is  wider  open  than  for  e. 

An  attempt  to  prolong  the  tone  produces  a 
drawl 

It  is  held,  as  above  remarked,  that  the 
sound  of  a  has  no  vanish;  perhaps  it  is 
very  generally  so  regarded. 


52  PHONICS. 


This  sound  should  never,  in  practice,  be 
allowed  to  degenerate  into  that  of  Italian  a, 
or  that  of  short  e. 

(See  No9.  4  and  8,  following.) 

FOB  PRACTICE. 

1.  man,  cat,  bat,  rat,  hat,  mat,  mall,  gap,  sat, 
marigold,  chanticleer,  vat,  accurate,  pecan, 
salver,  guaranty. 

#.  plaid,  bade,  jack,  jag,  algebra,  maltreat, 
albite,  adder,  chap,  adage,  alternate,  tassel, 
Occident,  talc,  seraglio,  guarantee. 

8.  national,  rational,  salmon,  stamp,  patriot- 
ic, half-penny,  raillery,  raspberry,  passage, 
valet,  pansy,  radices,  exact,  plat,  wax, 
strSnd,  Isaac. 

3.  Long  before  E,  a"  =  &  =  ai  =  ea  =  ei  •=• 
hei  =  a  simple  element,  with  possibly  the 
initial  in  a,  but  without  any  vanish. 

Or,  better  by  far,  &  may  be  regarded  as  a 
modification  of  e-nd,  by  which  it  is  to  be 
understood  that,  with  the  vocal  organs  placed 
so  as  to  utter  e,  the  sound  of  a  be  attempted, 
steadily  holding  the  organs  the  while  rigidly 
for  e  as  far  as  possible,  taking  special  car* 


VOWEL  SOUNDS.  63 

that  there  be  no  vanish,  or  different  sound, 
heard  at  the  close  of  the  utterance. 

This  tone  is  a  distinct  one,  neither  a,  nor 
a,  and  should  be  mastered  by  practice ;  it  is 
not  a  sound  modified  by  r,  although  followed 
by  it. 

The  extremes  to  be  studiously  avoided  are 
ii  and  a;  properly  uttered,  it  is  a  firm  and 
pleasant  tone. 

The  tone  is  a  long  sound,  capable  of  being 
continued  without  destroying  its  quality. 

FOR  PRACTICE. 

/.  b&re,  fare,  sh&re,  hair,  care,  chslir,  ne"er, 
st&re,  glare,  st&ir,  mare,  chlry,  la"ir,  l&ird, 
hare. 

2.  wh6re,  heir,  r&re,  there,  spare,  prayer,  e'er, 
squ&re,  swe&r,  barely,  chare,  aw&re,  be£r, 
air,  flare. 

3.  harelip,  solitaire,  solidare,  their,  pear,  pair, 
tear,  t&re,  parent,  fairy,  6re,  staring,  paring, 
insnare,  blare,   during,  we&r,   sc^re,  paM-e, 
dare,  scarce. 


4.   Italian    a  =  au  =  ua  =  ea  =  al  =  e  = 
ah  •=.  a  simple  element  usually  so  regarded. 


84  PHONICS. 

CONSONANTS. 


SUBVOCAL  (SUBTONIC)  AND  ASPIRATE  (ATONIC)  ELEMENTS, 
NOTE.  —  All  subtonics  have  "  a  momentary  termina- 
tive  portion  of  the  subtonic  sound,"  called  the  vocule; 
\t  approaches  5-rr. 

35.  B  =  be  =  a  simple  element,  subvocal, 
short,  explosive.  To  make  the  sound :  Close 
the  lips  and  separate  the  jaws  as  if  to  pro- 
nounce the  word  b-o?/ ;  close  the  back  nostrils 
with  the  soft  palate ;  then  allow  the  vocalized 
breath  to  compress  itself  within  the  mouth, 
until  the  lips  are  suddenly  forced  apart  by 
the  compression. 

All  vocality  ceases  instantly  at  the  separat- 
ing of  the  lips. 

FOR  PRACTICE. 

1.  boy,  babe,  bay,  boil 
0.  bat,  bite,  bit,  bank 


36.  Q  (soft)  =  s  =  a  simple  element ;  as- 
pirate, capable  of  being  continued,  yet  should 
be  very  short. 


CONSONANT  SOUNDS.  55 

It  is  made  by  bringing  into  contact,  or  very 
nearly  so,  the  front  teeth  only ;  open  the  lips, 
draw  back  from  the  front  teeth  the  end  of 
the  tongue  as  if  to  pronounce  the  words  q-ent, 
s-un,  and  emit  between  the  tongue  and  teeth 
or  upper  gum  the  unvocal  breath  only. 

FOR  PRACTICE. 

1.  9ite,  song,  qion,  sing. 

2.  niecje,  Qipher,  sell,  century. 


37.  -€  (hard)  =  eh  =  k  =  (gu  =  k+w)  = 
ck  =  gh  =  qu  =  a  simple  element ;  aspirate, 
abrupt,  short,  percussive. 

To  make  the  sound :  Open  the  mouth  as 
if  to  pronounce  the  word  e-at,  holding  the 
unvocal  breath  abruptly  stopped  at  the  larynx, 
or  upper  windpipe,  compressing  the  breath 
the  while  within  the  windpipe  and  lungs; 
then  allow  the  compressed  breath  to  escape 
suddenly  and  forcibly  through  the  mouth,  but 
without  vocality. 

FOR  PRACTICE. 

1.  -chorus,  kind,  tak,  pieni«,  king,  liquor. 
9 .  liehen,  -eall,  lick,  buehu,  hough. 


PHONLCS. 


RECAPITULATION  AND  INDEX, 


VOWEL  ELEMENTS. 

Page      No.          "  x- — x 

13-14    1  a=a+e=e(-No.  11). ..ale,  dey. 

14-15 

15-16 

16-17 

17-19 

19-20 

20 

20-21 

21-22 

22 

22 

22-24 


24-25 
25-26 
26 
26 


2  a.  ..at. 

3  a=6  (=No.  10)...  air,  ere. 

4  a...  arm. 

5  a...  ask. 

6  a=6  (=No.  22)...  awe,  ought 


7  a=u  (=No.  18)...wh9,t,  ox. 

8  e=i  (=No  15)...  eve,  shire, 

9  e...met. 

10  g=a(=No.  3)...  ere,  air. 

11  e=ca  (=No.  1)..  dey,  ale. 

12  e  =  I=y  (-Nos.  LQ,  32)...  her,  sli, 

syrt. 

13  l=aT6=y  (=No.  30)...Ice^bf. 

14  X=y  (=No.  31)...  in,  s^inboL 

15  i=e  (=No.  8)...  shire,  eve. 

16  I=y=5  (=Nos.  32,  12)...  sir,  syrt> 

her. 


VOWEL  ELEMENTS.  5T 

Page       No. 

26-27J  17  6=5+1*0.  ..old. 

27-30J  18  6=a  (=No.  7)...  ox,  what. 

30 

30-31 


31 


31 
31 


32 


19  6=u  (=No.  26)... sou,  up. 

20  o=oo=u(=Nos.  23,  27)... do.  tx5&, 

rule. 

21  9  =  6o  =  u  (  =  Nos.  24,  28)... wolf, 

good,  put. 

22  6=a  (=No.  6)... ought,  awe. 

23  oo  =  u  =  o  (=Nos.  27, "20)... too, 

rule,  do. 


24  00  =  11  =  9  (  =  Nos.  28,  21).  ..good, 
put,  wolf. 

32-33J  25  u=eT§o...nue. 

33-34!  26  ti=6  (=No.  19)...  tip,  son. 

34-35|27  u=o  =  oo  (=Nos.  20,  23)...riTle, 

do,  too. 
35        28  u  =  9  =  oo  (=Nos.  21,  24)..^, 


35-36 
36 
36 
36 


wolf,  good. 

29  u...l)urn. 

30  y=i  (=No.  13)... by,  Ice. 

31  y=X  (=:No.  14)... symbol,  In. 


32  y=e=I (=Nos.  12, 16)...syrt, h5r, 

sir. 

36-37  33  oi=oy=o+L..oil,  boy. 
37        34  ou=ow=o+ oo. ..our,  now. 


PHONICS. 


CONSONANT  ELEMENTS. 


41 


Page       No. 


42-43 


43-44 
44 


44 


44 
45 

45-46 

46 

46-47 
47 


47 


48 
48-49 


35  b...babe. 

36  9  (so/0  =s  (=No.  58)...c,ent,  sing. 


37 


•eat,.  -chorus,  kine. 


38  ch:=t-f-sh  (nearly)...  church. 

39  qh  (so/0  =  sh  (  =  No.  60).  .  Chaise, 

shun. 

40  eh  (fom*)=k=-e(=Nbs.  47,  37)... 

ehorus,  kine,  eat. 

41  d...day. 

42  f=ph(=rNo.  54)...  fan,  phantom. 

43  g(A«n£) 

44  g  (so/i5)  =  d  -|-  zh  (nearly)  =  j  (=  No. 

46)...  gem,  jay. 

45  h...hay. 

46  j=d+zh(7iear/3/)=g(=No  44)... 

jay,  gem. 

47  k  =  «  =  «h  (  =  Nos.  37,  40)  =qu... 

kine,  eat,  •ehorus,  coquette. 

48  l...lull. 

49  m...maim. 


CONSONANT  ELEMENTS. 


49 
49 
50 

50-51 
51 

51-52 

52 

52-53 

53 

53-54 


64-55 

55 

56 

56 

56-57 

57 

58 
58 
58 
69 
69 


69--60 
60 


50  n...nun. 

51  ng=n  (=:No.  52)... sing,  ink. 

52  n=ng  (=No.  51)... ink,  sing. 

53  p=ph  (=No.  54)... pay,  naphtha. 

54  ph=f  (=No.  42)... phantom,  fan. 

55  qu=k+w...  queen. 

56  r  (initial") . .  .rap. 

57  r  ( final) ..  .oar. 

58  s  (sharp) = g  ( = No.  3  6) . . .  sing,  gent 

59  §  (soft,  or  vocal)  =  z  (  =  No.  70)... 

ha§,  zone. 

60  sh— gh  (=No.  3 9)... shun,  ghaise. 

61  t...tent. 

62  th  (sharp)... thin. 

63  fh  (flat  or  vocal)... thy. 

64  v... valve. 

65  w=oo  (very  short}  (nearly)... 

66  vrh=h+w...what. 

67  x  (sAarp)=k+s...box. 

69  y...you. 

70  z  =  §  '(  =  No.  59)  =zh...zone, 

zho. 

71  z=zh  (=No.  72)... azure. 

72  zh=z  (=No.  71)... azure. 


SPELLING. 


INTRODUCTION. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  orthography  of  the 
English  language  is  a  difficult  one.  In  a  general  way 
there  are  no  principles  governing  it ;  but  a  very  few 
rules  can  be  called  to  mind  and  these  have  so  many 
exceptions  that  we  are  uncertain  about  orthography. 

There  are  only  three  rules  that  I  have  found  of 
practical  value : 

1.  "  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last 
syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant,  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant  before  an 
addition  beginning  with  a  vowel." 

2.  "  The  diphthong  '  ei'  usually  follows  '  c,'  while 
its  companion  '  ie '  is  generally  used  after  other  con- 
sonants." 

3.  Words  ending  in  final  "  y,"  preceded  by  a  vowel 
form  their  plurals  by  adding  "  s1."    It  will  be  seen  at 
once  that  English  spelling  must  be  learned  to  a  great 
extent  arbitrarily  ;  but  a  little  industry  and  attention 
will  enable  any  student  to  master  it. 

Results  Unsatisfactory. 

Everybody  knows  how  imperfectly  spelling  accom- 
plishes its  purpose  ;  there  is  no  reason  why  any 


UNSATISFACTORY  RESULTS.  M 

student  should  habitually  spell  words  badly.    Any 
person  may  learn  to  spell. 

No  teacher  of  spelling  is  necessary  or  useful  to 
persons  who  can  read  and  write.  If  the  student 
would  learn  to  spell  words  let  him  use  words.  Let 
him  write  every  day ;  and  in  writing,  whenever  he 
shall  come  to  a  word  which  he  does  not  certainly 
know  how  to  spell,  let  him  look  for  it  in  his  diction, 
ary  and  study  its  spelling  and  meaning. 

mechanical  Spelling. 

Too  often  the  spelling  is  a  mere  "  parrot  exercise," 
in  that  its  results  are  rapidly  lost  as  soon  as  the  atten- 
tion is  given  to  something  else.  'Inattention  is  a  fruit- 
ful source  of  iil  spelling.  Time  is  wasted  upon  oral 
spelling,  and  bad  habits  are  formed  by  spelling  new 
words  pupils  do  not  understand.  ; 

Combination  of  Spelling. 

I  should  connect  spelling  and  reading  with  writing 
from  the  very  outset.  As  soon  as  the  child  can  pro- 
nounce the  alphabet  on  this  plan  he  will  be  able  to 
write  it,  and  then  as  he  advances  he  must  continue 
to  write  all  the  spelling  lessons  and  as  much  of  the 
reading  lessons  as  time  will  admit.  It  is  a  rare  thing 
to  find  children  seven  years  old  able  to  read  a  word 
of  manuscript, — much  less  to  write  well.  A  little 
instruction  given  by  the  teacher  each  day  upon  this 
special  study,  will  make  the  children  good  penmen 
in  a  few  weeks'  time.  This  is  not  an  impossibility — 
teachers,  try  it.  It  is  a  very  valuable  help. 


62  SPELLING, 

During  the  past  year  I  have  pronounced  the  fol« 
.owing  words  to  twenty-one  Institutes  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  viz: 

accordion,  melodeon,        .  alpaca, 

beefsteak,  billiards,  caterpillar, 

diphtheria,  harelip,  surcingle, 

occurrence,  inflammatory,      succotash, 

tranquillity,         exaggerate,          vaccinate, 
centennial,  brilliancy,  collision, 

dissipate,  tyrannical,          valleys, 

lilies,  numskull,  primer, 

erysipelas. 

The  average  spelling  of  the  teachers,  including 
public  school,  union  school,  academy  and  normal 
school  teachers  is  sixty-three  per  cent.  One  county 
stood  at  eighty-five  per  cent,  and  one  at  twenty  per 
cent.  Only  three  teachers  froin  the  twenty-oiie 
counties  spelled  all  the  words  correctly. 

The  following  list  has  been  given  at  institutes, 
with  similar  results : 

Judgment,  infringement,  abridgment,,  acknowl- 
edgment, tranquillity,  dissyllable,  bilious,  lilies, 
eying,  vying,  halos,  inseparable,  privilege,  licentiate, 
conscientious,  intercede,  supersede,  sacrilegious,  in- 
flammation, quizzical,  contrariwise,  mucilage,  mil- 
lennium, metallic. 

Oral  Spelling. 

/.  Directions. 
I.   Require  the  pupil  to  pronounce  the — • 

(a)  Word  accurately  before  spelling. 

(b)  Letters  accurately. 


DIRECTIONS  AND  CA  UTIONS.  88 


(c)  Syllables  accurately. 

(d)  Word  accurately  after  spelling. 

(e)  Words  of  the  succeeding  lesson  ac- 
curately before  study. 

(f)  Require   the  pupil  to    name  every 

thing  necessary  to  the  correct  writ- 
ing or  printing  of  .the  word,  as  the 
capital  letter,  hyphen,  apostrophe,  etc. 

(g)  Require  the  pupils  to  copy  the  words 
of   the    succeeding    lesson    several 
times  before  spelling. 

2.  Let  every  fifth  exercise  be  a  review. 

3.  Require  misspelled  words  to  be  writ- 
ten correctly. 

4.  Review  often  and  advance  slowly. 

II.   Cautiom. 
I.   The  teacher  should — 

(a)  Pronounce  the  word  only  once. 

(b)  Never  repeat  a  syllable. 

(c)  Not  permit  the  pupil  to    repeat  a 
syllable. 

(d)  Require  pupils  to    divide  one   syl- 
lable from  another  by  a  pause. 

(e)  Give  no  undue  emphasis  on  unac- 
cented syllables. 


M  SPELLING. 


(f)  Not  permit   the  pupil  to  try  the 
second  time  on  a  word. 

(g)  Explain  new  zvords. 

III.  Remits. 

1.  The  correct  spelling  of  words. 

2.  The  correct  pronunciation  of  words. 
REMARK8f-In    teaching  Spelling,    the  instructor 

should  aim  to  give  interest  to  the  exorcise  by  fre- 
quently varying  the  mode  of  recitation}  But  what- 
ever course  iff  pursued,  the  following  directions 
should  be  strictly  adhered  to  : 

a.  That  th'e  word  should  be  pronounced  distinctly; 
just  as  it  would  be  pronounced  by  a  good  reader  or 
a  good  speaker.  In  giving  out  the  words  to  a  class, 
teachers  sometimes  commit  the  error  of  varying 
from  the  ordinary  pronunciation,  for  the  sake  of  in- 
dicating the  orthography.  /No  undue  emphasis  or 
"prolongation  of  the  utterance  of  a  syllable  should  be 
given  by  the  teacher.  „ 

'  p.  That  the  pupil  should  spell  once  only  on  a  word ; 
as  all  beyond  will  be  merely  guessing. 

For  employment  between  recitations  the  children 
should  be  permitted  and  encouraged,  and  required 
and  compelled,  to  write  all  the  exercises  they  read  or 
spell  upon  their  slates. 

Importance  of  Written  Spelling. 

The  best  way  to  study  a  spelling  lesson  is  to  require 
the  pupils  to  write  it  several  times  on  their  slates. 
The  practice  of  requiring  pupils  to  study  the  lesson 


WRITTLN  SPELLING.  65 

a  given  number  of  times,  only  teaches  them  to  hurry 
over  their  study,  and  not  to  study  to  any  purpose. 

It  is  not  the  number  of  times  a  lesson  has  been 
studied  that  should  be  considered  the  mark  of  effort, 
but  the  ability  to  spell  every  word  in  the  lesson. 

Importance  of  Teaching  Writing, 
There  is  no  reason  why  every  child  in  every  school 
should  not  be  a  good  penman  at  a  very  early  age. 

The  advantage  of  this  acquisition  to  the  children 
cannot  be  overrated  ;  for,  besides  the  mechanical 
skill,  the  child  has  the  means  of  constant  employ- 
ment which  will  keep  him  from  idlenes.3  and  mis- 
chief, and  the  live  teacher  can  make  this  skill  bear 
upon  almost  every  exercise  in  other  branches  of  in- 
struction. 

Written   Spelling. 

/.  Directions. 

1.  Preparation  for  the  lesson. 

(a)  Pronounce  the  word  accurately. 

(b)  Use  it  in  the  construction  of  a  sentence. 

(c)  Define  it. 

(d)  Write  a  sentence  containing  it. 

2.  Materials— Book,  pen  and  ink. 

8.  Require  the  pupils  to  write  the  word  neatly,  as 
soon  as  pronounced. 

4.  At  the  close  of  the  written  exercise,  the  teacher, 
or  some  pupil,  should  spell  the  word  orally. 

5.  The  pupil  should  check  the  misspelled  words. 

6.  Every  misspelled  word,  and  word  omitted,should 
be  written  correctly  in  the  Appendix,  with  its  num- 
ber and  the  number  of  the  column. 


66  SPELLING. 


7.  All  blanks,  letters  or  words  erased,  inserted, 
written  over,  or  written  indistinctly,  should  be  con- 
sidered as  errors. 

8.  The  teacher  should  examine  the  pupil's  work, 
and  keep  a  record  of  the  scholarship. 

9.  Begin  all  words  with  small  letters,  except  proper 
names. 

II.  Cautions. 

1.  The  teacher  should  give  sufficient  time  to  the 
exercise. 

2.  The  direction  number  eight  must  be  adhered  to 
strictly  ;  any  violation  will  be  counted  the  same  as  a 
misspelled  word. 

3.  If  words  are  found  unchecked,  they  should  be 
marked  with  a  cipher. 

4.  Every  word  which  the  student  checks  for  him, 
self  will  deduct  one ;  every  word  checked  with  a 
cipher   will  deduct  five  ;  any  correction  whatever 
made  in  the  column  will  deduct  ten. 

REMARKS. — "The  old  adage,  'Eyes  are  better  than 
ears,'  nowhere  holds  good  with  greater  force  than  in 
learning  to  spell."  Familiarity  with  words  as  written, 
such  as  will  give  the  knowledge  of  all  the  letters  and 
their  proper  position,  is  necessary  to  the  power  of 
writing  them  correctly.  Such  familiarity  is  obtained 
only  from  frequently  seeing  or  writing  them.  The 
only  way  to  produce  words  accurately  is  to  make 
them  familiar  to  the  eye;  hence  the  well-known  fact 
that  persons  who  read  much,  as  compositors,  or  write 
much,  as  copyists,  invariably  spell  correctly  ;  hence 
also  the  common  practice,  when  people  are  in  doubt 


ORAL  SPELLING. 


between  two  forms  of  words,  to  write  them  both, 
when  the  eye  instantly  decides  on  the  right  thing. 

Value  ol  Oral  Spelling. 

Spelling  is  the  right  formation  of  words  with  their 
proper  letters.  Spelling  is  cither  oral  or  written. 
Oral  spelling  does  not  give  the  ability  to  write  words 
correctly  ;  but  it  must  not  irorn  this  fact  be  deemed  a 
useless  exercise.  Long  used  as  a  basis  of  learning  to 
read,  and  still  clung  to  by  many,  notwithstanding 
the  discovery  of  a  better  method,  there  must  be 
something  in  it.  It  has  already  been  shown  that  its 
special  claim  of  giving  the  learner  the  powers  of  the 
letters,  so  that  he  may  pronounce  new  words  for 
himself  cannot  be  allowed.  What  it  did  do,  was  to 
make  familiar  to  the  ear  words  that  otherwise  would 
have  been  altogether  strange,  and  sufficiently  distin- 
guishable by  the  eye  to  enable  the  learner  to  recog- 
nize them  again  when  met  with  in  his  reading  lessons. 
Other  reasons  may  be  assigned  for  the  tenacity  with 
which  the  old  practice  of  setting  spelling  lessons 
has  been  clung  to.  It  found  favor  with  parents 
as  furnishing  some  school  work  at  home.  And  it 
found  favor  with  teachers,  as  giving  the  only  means 
•with  the  younger  children,  or  with  the  very  poor,  of 
forming  those  habits  of  attention,  application,  perse- 
verance and  retention  which  are  the  characteristic 
features  of  a  system  of  tasks. 

Discovery  of  Mistakes. 

The  detection  of  every  mistake  with  least  loss  of 
time  is  of  the  first  importance.  Careful  examination 


SPELLING. 


of  each  slate  by  the  teacher  is  most  likely  to  secure 
this,  but  it  is  open  to  the  fatal  objection  that  it  occu- 
pies much  time  and  leaves  the  class  idle.  In  some 
schools  monitors  are  appointed  to  examine  the  slates 
and  to  correct  the  mistakes.  This,  apart  from  the 
difficulty  of  getting  properly  qualified  monitors,  is 
objectionable,  as  yielding  the  monitors  no  adequate 
return  for  their  lorg  and  irksome  task,  to  which  must 
be  added  the  possibility  of  unfaithfulness.  The  plan 
of  allowing  the  children  to  inspect  each  other's  slates 
is  open  to  serious  objections,  not  the  least  of  which  is 
the  distrust  it  seems  to  imply.  Sometimes  the  chil- 
dren compare  their  slates  with  the  lesson  in  the  book, 
or  written  on  the  black-board:  a  plan  which  has  the 
advantages  of  throwing  the  labor  on  the  child,  and 
of  having  the  corrections  made  at  the  same  time,  all 
tiiat  is  needed  being  a  vigilant  oversight,  to  see  that  it 
is  faithfully  done.  But  the  method  which  to  our 
mind  is  the  best,  is  to  dictate  but  one  or  two  senten- 
ces, and  then  to  have  each  sentence  spelled  through, 
either  by  the  teachers  or  by  the  scholars  in  turn,  every 
mistake  being  underlined. 

Corrections. 

The  correction  of  mistakes  should  appeal  to  Uie 
eye,  not  to  the  ear.  Pains  should  be  taken  to  ascer- 
tain the  cause  of  any  common  defect.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  word  should  be  written  on  the  black-board, 
and  alongside  of  it  the  correct  form;  the  two  should 
be  compared,  and  the  cause  of  the  mistake  discov- 
ered. Often  this  will  be  a  lesson  on  the  structure  of 
a  class  of  words,  and  probably  prevent  similar  mis- 


METHODS. 


takes  afterwards.  After  this  has  been  done,  the  whole 
class  should  write  the  word  in  its  correct  form,  and 
then  the  words  should  be  dictated  afresh;  if  any 
now  have  mistakes,  they  should  be  required  to  write 
the  words  three  or  six  times,  according  to  the  degree 
of  carelessness  shown.  Sometimes  it  may  be  well  to 
direct  the  children  themselves  to  write  correctly  the 
words  they  have  underlined,  this  making  them  atten- 
tive while  the  words  are  being  spelled.  But,  as  a  gen- 
eral thing,  this  is  open  to  the  objection  that  it  ap- 
peals to  the  eye,  and  that  it  does  not  occupy  the  chil- 
dren who  have  spelled  all  correctly. 

methods  in  Spelling. 

/.  Constructive  Method. 
1.  The  teacher  should  request  the  pupils  : — 
(a)  To  name  a  few  familiar  words. 
(6)  To  construct  with  block  or  card  letters. 

(c)  To  spell  the  words  by  the  sound  of  the  letters. 

(d)  To  copy  the  words  on  their  slates. 

(e)  To  tell  the  silent  letters. 

(/)  To  spell  the  words  by  the  name  of  the  letters. 
(g)  To  use  each  word  correctly  in  a  sentence. 

//.  Objective  MetJiod. 

1.  The  teacher  should  request  the  pupils  : — . 
(a)  To  bring  to  school  a  number  of  objects  of  th« 

same  kind. 
(6)  To  examine  them  carefully. 

(c)  To  name  the  parts. 

(d)  To  spell  and  write  the  words. 
(«)  To  tell  the  uses  of  the  parts. 


70  SPELLING. 

(f)  To  introduce  the  word  into  a  sentence. 

(g)  To  name  the  properties  of  the  parts. 

(h)  To  write  a  thort  composition,  reproducing 
the  words. 

General  Plan. 
I.  Object. 

II.  General  properties. 

III.  Parta. 

IV.  Properties  of  parts. 
V.  Uses  of  parts. 

VI.  General  uses. 

Different  Methods  of  Spelling. 

First  Method. 
Spelling  and  defining. 

1.  Assign  an  object  to  every  pupil. 

2.  Pupils  find  the  meaning. 

3.  Pupils  name  the  parts,  qualities,  uses,  etc. 

4.  Write    a    short  composition,    reproducing  the 

words. 

Second  Method. 

1.  Teacher  write  a  certain  number  of  words  on  the 
board,  requiring  the  pupils  to  copy. 

2.  The  pupils  learn  to  define  them. 

8.  The  pupils  use  them  in  composition  of  a  sen- 
tence. 

Third  Method. 

1.  Require  the  pupils  to  spell  the  names  of  : — 

(a)  Countries. 

(b)  States. 

(c)  Counties. 

(d)  Cities. 


METHODS. 


(e)  Towns. 

(/)  Divisions  of  Land.  . 

(g)  Divisions  of  Water. 

(h)  Classes  of  Objects. 

(i)  Occupations. 

(J)  Animals,  Minerals,  etc. 

(k)  Trees. 

(0  Fruits. 

(TO)  Flowers. 

(n)  Vegetables. 

Fourth  Method. — Dictation. 

1.  The  teacher  should  have  a  Dictation  Exercise 
once  a  week. 

2.  Dictate  complete  statements  to  the  pupils. 

/.  The  Direction  of  the  above  Exercise. 

1.  Write  your  full  name  on  the  paper ;  punctuate 
it 

2.  Number  the  sentences. 

3.  Construct  every  letter  accurately. 

4.  No  erasures  of  letters  or  words. 

5.  No  insertion  of  letters  or  words. 

6.  No  writing  over  of  letters  or  words. 

7.  No  prompting. 

8.  Use  capital  letters  correctly. 

9.  Use  punctuation  marks  correctly. 

10.  Cross  the  ".fs"  and  dot  the  "  i's." 

(a)  Teacher  or  pupil  write  the  correct  form  on 

the  board. 
(4)  Those  who  make  mistakes  in  spelling,  or  in 

any  of  the  directions,  should  be  required  to 

correct  them. 


SPELLING. 


(e   Teacker  should  carefully  examine  the  papers. 

(d)  Find  the  per  cent. 

REMARKS. — However  thorough  the  drill  in  spelling 
may  be  from  the  lessons  of  the  speller  and  reader, 
every  teacher  should  have  frequent  and  copious  ex- 
ercises in  spelling  words  from  other  sources.  These 
should  be  words  in  common  use,  chosen  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  range  of  the  pupil's  observation, 
including  the  new  words  that  arise  in  object  lessons, 
in  geography,  arithmetic  and  grammar.  The  more 
difficult  of  these  words  should  be  written  in  columns 
on  the  board,  and  studied  and  reviewed  with  the 
same  care  as  lessons  from  the  speller  and  reader. 
Failures  in  spelling  these  words  should  be  marked 
as  errors,  the  same  as  failures  in  any  other  lessons. 

Various  Modes    of  Conducting    Exercises   In 
Spelling. 

1.  Read  a  short  sentence  distinctly,  and  require 
every  word  to  be  spelled    by  the  class, — the  first 
pupil  pronouncing  and  spelling  the  first  word,  the 
next  pupil  the  second,  and  so  on  until  all  the  words 
in  the  sentence  have  been  spelled.    (An  excellent 
exercise  ;  it  demands  attention.) 

2.  It  will  be  well  in  oral  spelling  to  make  all  the 
members  of  the  class  responsible  for  the  accurate 
spelling  of  each  and  every  word. 

If  the  first  member  of  the  class  misspells  the  word 
given  to"  him,  let  the  teacher  proceed  and  give  out 
the  next  word,  without  intimating  whether  the  first 
word  was  correctly  or  incorrectly  spelled. 

If  the  second  pupil  thinks  the  first  word  was  not 


STUDY  DIFFIC UL T  WORDS.  78 

spelled  correctly,  he  will  spell  it  instead  of  the  one 
given  to  him,  and  so  on  through  the  class,  each  being 
expected  to  correct  any  error  that  may  have  been 
committed.  If  the  first  pupil  spells  a  word  incor- 
rectly, and  no  one  corrects  it,  let  all  be  charged  with 
a  failure  This  mode  will  amply  compensate  for  its 
frequent  adoption. 

Require  Study  on  the  Difficult  Words. 

Two-thirds  of  the  words  in  the  English  language 
need  but  little  study.  The  remainder  cau  be  mastered 
only  by  study.  The  pupils  should  be  urged  to  study 
the  difficult  words. 

8.  Another  mode  of  conducting  the  exercise  of 
spelling  is  the  following,  and  we  may  add  that  for 
more  advanced  schools  it  possesses  some  advantages. 

Let  the  teacher  write  legibly  on  the  board  twenty 
or  more  difficult  words,  and  allow  them  to  remain 
long  enough  to  be  carefully  studied  by  the  school 
A.  few  minutes  before  the  exercise  let  all  the  words 
be  erased  from  the  board.  Let  each  pupil  provide 
himself  with  a  slip  of  paper,  following  the  order  as 
directed  in  the  previous  exercises.  The  teacher  will 
pronounce  the  words  and  the  pupils  will  write  them. 

After  the  words  have  been  written,  let  the  slips  be 
collected  and  taken  by  the  teacher,  who  may  him- 
self— aided  by  some  of  the  pupils — examine  the 
slips,  and  mark  the  words  spelled  incorrectly.  Sub- 
sequently, let  the  teacher  read  the  result  to  the  whole 
school,  stating  the  number  of  errors  committed  by 
the  several  pupils ;  after  which  the  papers  may  be 
returned  for  correction.  If  there  is  a  good  board  in 
the  room,  a  few  pupils  should  write  the  lesson  on  it 


74  SPELLING. 


4.  An  attractive  mode,  which  may  answer  for  oral 
or  written  spelling,  is  the  following  : 

The  instructor  pronounces  a  word  which  is  to 
be  spelled  by  the  first  in  the  class,  who  will  name 
immediately  another,  commencing  with  the  final 
letter  of  the  first  word  which  is  to  be  spelled  by  the 
next  pupil  ;  and  he  in  turn  will  name  another  word, 
and  so  on  through  the  class.  It  will  awaken  thought 
and  interest. 

5.  Another  mode  which  has  its  advantages  is  the 
following  : 

Let  the  teacher  dictate  some  twenty  or  twenty-five 
words  to  the  class,  requiring  the  members  to  write 
them  on  their  slates.  These  words  are  to  be  care- 
fully examined  and  studied  by  the  pupils,  who  are 
also  to  be  required  to  incorporate  each  word  in  a 
sentence,  which  shall  illustrate  its  meaning  and  show 
that  it  is  understood  by  them. 

After  these  sentences  have  been  read  and  erased 
from  the  slates,  let  the  words  be  dictated  again,  to  be 
written  and  examined  with  special  reference  to  the 
orthography. 

The  teacher  should  keep  a  copy  of  all  words  dictated 
to  the  pupils  and  hold  them  responsible  for  the  cor- 
rect spelling  in  review. 

Importance  of  Spelling. 

Teachers  should  give  close  attention  to  this  impor- 
tant subject,  for  truly  it  has  been  said,  "  To  sp«ll 
one's  own  language  well  is  no  great  credit  to  him  for 
he  ought  to  do  it ;  but  to  spell  it  ill  is  a  disgrace,  be- 
cause it  indicates  extremely  poor  attention  and  loose 


ITS  IMPORTANCE.  7* 


scholarship."  We  have  a  great  number  of  spelling- 
books,  grammars,  and  other  aids,  but  with  all  these, 
poor  spellers  greatly  abound. 

/""One  cause  of  the  frequency  of  poor  spelling  may 
be  found  in  the  neglect  with  which  the  spelling 
lesson  is  treated  in  schools.1  It  is  often  crowded 
into  a  few  minutes  and  passed  over  in  a  very  hurried 
and  imperfect  manner,  and  if  any  exercise  must  be 
omitted  the  spelling  lesson  is  the  neglected  one. 
Another  cause  may  be  found  in  a  feeling,  not  very 
uncommon,  that  spelling  is  undeserving  the  atten- 
tion of  any  but  very  young  pupils. 

From  the  beginning  let  your  pupils  understand 
that  the  spelling  lesson  will  always  receive  its  due 
share  of  atention,  and  its  due  time.  Hold  your 
pupils  responsible  for  the  correct  spelling  of  every 
word  at  the  regular  recitation  and  upon  reviews. 

As  soon  as  the  pupils  can  write,  which,  in  a  well- 
conducted  school,  is  about  as  soon  as  they  can  read, 
special  instruction  in  spelling  with  script  letters 
should  be  introduced,  and  children  should  be  re- 
quired to  write  and  to  spell  orally  every  word  in 
their  reading,  and  in  all  other  lessons.  (  If  accuracy 
and  neatness  in  every  particular  be  required,  habits 
of  careful  attention  will  be  formed^ 

The  child  must  be  taught  to  spell  correctly,  before 
twelve  years  old,  as  this  habit  is  seldom  acquired 
after  that  age. 

Spelling  Used  only  in  Printing:  and   Writing. 

A  good   speller  is  one  who  habitually  gives  the 

correct  form  to  every  word  in  his  written  exercises, 


76  -       SPELLING. 


It  is  only  in  printed  and  written  language  that  cor* 
rect  spelling  possesses  any  value.  Oral  spelling  is 
not  a  test  of  accuracy.  It  is  impossible  to  memorize 
by  their  letters  all  the  words  in  our  language.  If  we 
wish  to  make  pupils  excellent  spellers,  we  must 
cultivate  the  powers  of  observation  and  memory.  If 
habits  of  carelessness  and  inaccuracy  are  allowed  to 
be  formed  in  childhood,  no  ordinary  efforts  in  after 
life  can  overcome  the  defects  or  supply  the  deficien- 
cies that  result  from  such  bad  habits. 

General  Rules  for  Spelling. 

Rule  1.  Write  no  word  unless  sure  of  its  orthogra- 
phy and  signification. 

Ruk  2.  Consult  the  dictionary  in  case  of  doubt. 

Rule  8.  Apply  the  rules  for  derivatives. 

REMARKS. — Rules  for  spelling  are  of  but  little  use 
in  primary  classes,  or  in  fact  in  any  classes.  It  may 
be  well  to  memorize  them,  as  they  may  prove  of  a 
little  use  in  spelling  qf  derivatives. 

Exercise  in  Orthoepy 

1.  sacrifice,  6.  torrid, 

2.  meznoriter,  7.  often, 

3.  pedagogy,  8.  pretty, 

4.  equable,  9.  finance, 

5.  truths,  10.  mercy. 
Exercise  in  Orthoepy,  with  Diacritical  Marks* 

1.  sSc'rtflce,  6.  tSr'W, 

2.  uiemSr'iter,  7.  Sf'ten, 
8.  .pgd'agOgy,  8.  pret'ty, 

4.  e'quable,  9.  ffn&nc&, 

5.  truths,  10.  mer'cy. 


R  ULES  AND  EXER  G18E8.  7T 

NOTE. — The  teacher  should  write  these  words  on 
the  board,  and  let  the  pupils  pronounce  them. 

Exercise  in  Orthoepy. 

1.  finale,  6.  inquiry, 

2.  apparatus,  7.  employe, 

8.  orotund,  8.  condolence, 

4.  iugular,  9.  dessert, 

6.  enervate,  10.  pronunciation. 

Same  Words  with  Diacritical  Marks 

1.  flna'le,  6.  Inqul'ry, 

2.  fipparS'tus,  7.  employe, 

3.  O'rotund,  8.  condolence, 

4.  iu'gular,  9.  dessert', 

5.  Bner'vate,  10.  pronunciation. 

Exercises  in  Orthoepy. 

1.  aye  6.  acclimate, 

2.  area,  7.  apparent, 

3.  almond,  8.  aspirant, 

4.  alias,  9.  allopathy, 

6.  arctic,  10.  albumen. 

Same  Words  with  Diacritical  Marks. 

1.  a'ye,  6.  Sccll'tnate, 

2.  S'rea,  7.  fippar'ent, 

3.  S'lmond,  8.  Ssplr'ant, 
4  8'llas,  9.  filldp'athy, 

5.  Arc'tic,  10.  albu'rnen. 


J*  SPELLING. 


Exercise  in  Orthoepy. 

1.  Appalachian,  6.  Colorado, 

2.  Am'azon,  7.  CObO'es, 

3.  New  Or'leans,  8.  Virgi'nia, 

4.  Newfoundland,  9.  Arkan'sas, 

5.  Shawan'gunk,  10.  Ausa'ble. 

REMAKKS  — "  Exactness  in  articulation  cannot  exist 
without  close  discrimination  and  careful  analysis." 
The  preceding  exercises  on  the  correct  pronunciation 
of  words  should  receive  attention.  It  would  be  well 
for  the  teacher  to  write  on  the  board  a  list  of  words 
pronounced  incorrectly  by  the  pupils,  and  require  the 
pupils  to  correct  them. 

Inquiries  are  made  so  frequently  about  books  for 
written  spelling  that  it  is  thought  best  to  give  the 
names  of  some  of  the  books  and  publishers.  Any 
of  them  may  be  obtained  of  Davis,  Bardeen  &  Co., 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Patterson's  Exercise  Book — Small  25  cts.,  large  50 
Cts.  ;  Sheldon  &  Co  ,  New  York. 

Sherwood's  Written  Speller — 12  cts.  ;  George  Sher- 
wood &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

The  Bulletin  Blank  Speller,  prepared  by  Henry  B. 
Buckham,  Principal  Buffalo  State  Normal  School— 
15  cts.  each,  $10.00  per  hundred  ;  Davis,  Bardeen  & 
Co.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


PENMANSHIP. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Bat  little  need  be  said  on  this  subject,  for  the 
reason  that  the  authors  of  the  various  systems  of 
penmanship  have  placed  before  the  public  "  Hand- 
Books  "  on  the  subject,  so  that  teachers  may  qualify 
themselves  to  teach  it.  A  moment's  reflection  will 
suffice  to  convince  any  one  of  the  importance  of  this 
art ;  it  is  intimately  connected  with  all  the  commer- 
cial and  social  relations  of  life. 

When  we  reflect  that  a  brief  practice,  a  few  months 
at  the  farthest,  under  a  competent  instructor,  will 
enable  even  a  child  to  command  and  use  this  noted 
instrument,  I  would  ask,  is  it  not  a  shame  that 
pupils  frequently  leave  school  at  the  age  of  twelve^/ 
years  unable  to  write  even  a  tolerable  hand?  Writing 
is  virtually  ignored  as  a  branch  of  study  in  a  majority 
of  our  common  schools.  It  should  not  be  placed  in 
the  background  :  rather  in  the  foreground  of  our 
educational  work.  Writing  is  the  complement  of 
Drawing,  and  both  these  are  complements  of  Reading^ 
In  our  best  schools  pupils  are  taught  to  write  the  first 
year. 

Writing,  as  a  medium  for  communicating  thought, 
Is  almost  as  important  as  speaking.  Scrawls  that 


80  PENMANSHIP. 


cannot  be  read  may  be  compared  to  talking  that  can 
not  be  understood.  If  the  teachers  would  attain 
excellence  in  Penmanship  they  must  master  the 
principles  and  faithfully  practise  them.  Writing 
cannot  be  thoroughly  taught  by  imitation;  it  must  be 
made  a  study  for  a  few  months'  time,  and  then  all  the 
difficulties  will  be  removed.  We  have  seen  hundreds 
of  teachers  who  could  not  tell  what  kind  of  lines 
were  used  in  making  the  letter  "  n."  Good  penman- 
ship should  be  exacted  as  a  qualification  of  our  public 
school  teachers. 

As  a  general  rule  teachers  dislike  to  teach  writing 
because  they  do  not  know  how.  Let  the  teachers  of 
our  public  schools  learn  to  write  and  at  the  same 
time  learn  to  teach  the  art.  Children  like  to  write, 
never  need  urging  when  the  instruction  is  imparted 
profitably  and  correctly.  One  year  at  school  with 
the  qualified  teacher  would  enable  every  pupil  to 
write  a  plain  hand.  We  hope  the  brief  instruction 
on  this  subject  will  pay  good  interest  on  the  time 
expended  on  its  study. 

Penmanship. 

{1.  Left  side. 
I  E^obUque. 
4.  Right  side. 


1.  Finger. 

TT   -LT^rr  i  2.  Fore- arm. 

H.  Movement.    {  3  combined. 

4.  Whole-arm. 


POINTS  TO  BE  OBSER  VED. 


81 


III.  Lines. 


IV.  Slant 


V.  Space. 


71,  Constriction. 


VII.  Form. 


1.  Base-line. 

2.  Head-line. 

3.  Intermediate-line. 

4.  Top-line. 


ii 


Main-slant. 
Connective-slant 


1.  Height. 

2.  Width. 

3.  Length. 


•i:. 


1.  Slants 

2.  Angles,  -j 

3.  Turns.] 

'1.  Small. 


1   Main. 


Connective 
)  Lower. 


j  1.  Right  curve. 
( 2.  Left  curve. 


Lower. 

Upper< 


1.  Short,  (thirteen.) 

2   Semi-extended,  (four.) 

3.  Extended  or  Ioop,(nin6) 


.2.  Capital.— Three  Classes. 


VIII.  Principles. - 


1.  Straight  line. 

2.  Right  curve. 

3.  Left  curve. 

4.  Extended  loop. 

5.  Direct  oval. 

6.  Reversed  oval. 
.7.  Capital  stem. 


IX.  Spacing.  - 


1.  Between  letters,   one  and  one- 

fourth  spaces;  except  o,  d,  g and 
<7,  two  spaces. 

2.  Between  words,  one    and  one- 

half  spaces. 
L  3.  Between  sentences,  two  spaces. 


PENMANSHIP. 


(1.  Count  one  on  the  first  stroke,'  ttoo 
on  the  second,  and  so  on,  until 
the  last  stroke ;  then  repeat  one. 
2.  Count  one  on  the  combination  ; 

[and  one  at  the  end  of  a  word. 
3.  In  writing  a  copy,    pronounce 
the  word  before  counting. 


XI.  Shading  -{  Five  different  forms. 


XII.  Requisites. 


f  1.  Good  teaching. 

2.  Good  copy. 

3.  Good  desk. 

4.  Good  paper. 

5.  Good  pens. 

C.  Good  pen-holder*. 

7.  Good  ink. 

8.  Blotter. 

9.  Pen  wiper. 

10.  Practice  paper. 

11.  Blackboard. 

12.  Covers. 


XIII.  Opening.   • 


f  1.  Position. 

2.  Adjust  book. 

3.  Find  copy. 

4.  Adjust  arms. 

5.  Open  inkstand. 

6.  Take  pens. 

7.  Take  ink. 

8.  Ready. 

9.  Write. 
10.  Count. 


XIV.  dosing.  \  i 


POINTS  TO  BE  OBSERVED.  6t 

1 .  Wipe  pens. 

2.  Pass  pens. 

3.  Position. 
Close  inkstand. 
Pass  pen-wiper. 

6.  Close  books. 

7.  Pass  books. 

8.  Position. 

Penmanship. 

/.  Directions. 

1.  Construct  and  illustrate  the  letters  on  the  board. 

2.  Give   instruction    and  practice  on  individual 
letters. 

3.  Teach  writing  as  a  simultaneous  exercise. 

4.  Require  the"  pupils  to — 

(a)  Analyze  the  letters  ;  first,  in  concert,  with  the 
elements  ;  second,  with  the  principles. 

(J)  Analyze  the  letters  with  precise  language 
before  execution. 

(c)  Write  slowly  in  the  beginning. 

(d)  Write  on  the  board  daily. 

(«)  Write   without   lifting   the  pen   from   the 

paper. 
(/)  Write  with  the  slate-pencil  in  the  beginning. 

Pass  an  oral  examination  weekly  ;  written 

examination  monthly. 

//.  Cautions. 

1.  Teach  and  train  the  pupils  to  know. 

2.  Teach  and  train  the  pupils  to  execute. 
8.  Teach  and  train  the  pnpils  to  criticise. 
4.  Teach  and  train  the  pupils  to  correct. 


84  PENMANSHIP. 


III.  Beauto. 

{I.  Accuracy. 
I  SSSS&. 
4.  Neatness. 

2.  Beauty. 

3.  Rapidity. 

Position. 

The  position  of  the  body  is  of  great  importance  to 
correctness  and  freedom  of  execution.  We  should 
first  teach  the  correct  position  of  the  body,  arms, 
hands  and  feet,  and  absolutely  insist  that  every  pupil 
shall  sit  in  this  manner  unless  prevented  by  some 
physical  deformity.  Teachers  sometimes  make  a 
great  mistake  they  show  the  proper  position  but 
neglect  to  insist  upon  it. 

Whatever  the  position,  the  pupils  should  learn  to 
sit  easily  upright  and  keep  the  shoulders  square. 
Left  Position. 

Sit  with  the  left  side  making  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees  with  },he  desk  ;  place  the  book  nearly  square 
with  the  desk  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  body. 

This  position  is  the  most  favorable  for  writing  on 
large  books. 

Front  Position. 

Sit  directly  facing  the  desk,  near  to  it,  with  the 
feet  level  on  the  floor,  and  the  fore-arms  resting 
slightly  on  the  desk  in  front,  at  right  angles  to  each 
other.  The  right  arm  should  rest  lightly  on  the  edge 
of  the  desk,  on  the  muscles  below  the  elbow.  Adjust 
the  book  so  that  the  right  arm  will  be  at  right  angles 
to  the  lines  on  which  you  are  to  write. 


MARK  THE  POSITION.  86 

Right- Oblique. 

The  Right-Oblique  position  varies  from  the  full 
right  position  in  having  the  right  side  but  partially 
turned  toward  the  desk,  and  the  arms  and  book 
placed  obliquely  on  the  desk. 

Right  Position.   . . 

Turn  the  right  side  near  to  the  desk  but  not  in 
contact  with  it ;  keep  the  body  erect,  the  feet  level 
on  the  floor  ;  place  the  right  arm  parallel  to  the  edge 
of  the  desk,  resting  on  the  muscle  just  forward  of  the 
elbow.  Let  the  left  hand  be  at  right  angles  to  the 
right  and  resting  on  the  book,  keeping  it  parallel 
with  the  edge  of  the  book. 

Movement. 

In  writing,  the  instruments  used  are  the  pen- 
fingers,  the  fore-arm  and  the  whole  arm  movements. 
A  free,  easy  movement  produces  a  graceful  line, 
while  a  stiff,  cramped  one  produces  a  rough,  irregular 
Hue.  The  training  of  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and 
hand  must  be  attended  to  by  the  teacher.  In  the 
first  attempts  at  writing,  the  muscles  may  not  prop- 
erly perform  what  the  mind  directs  ;  but  by  frequent 
and  careful  practice  they  are  rendered  obedient  to 
the  will.  So  important  is  this  training  that  some 
authors  institute  tracing  exercises  to  educate  the 
hand  to  regular  movements. 

Finger  Movement. 

This -movement  is  made  by  the  extension  and  re- 
traction of  the  pen-fingers  and  the  thumb,  and  it  if 


86  PENMANSHIP. 


chiefly  used  in  making  the  upward  and  downward 
strokes.  It  is  used  mainly  in  making  single  letters.. 
This  movement  and  its  exact  position  should  be 
carefully  taught. 

Fore-Arm  Movement* 

This  movement  is  made  by  resting  the  arm  on  the 
muscles  below  the  elbow,— that  is,  the  muscles  be- 
low the  elbow  are  used  as  the  centre  of  motion, 
giving  a  lateral  movement.  It  may  be  employed  in. 
making  strokes  in  any  direction. 

Combined  Movement. 

This  movement  consists  in  the  united  action  of  the 
fore-arm,  hand  and  fingers,  the  fore-arm  acting  on 
its  muscular  re&t  as  a  centre.  This  movement  an- 
swers the  requirements  of  business  use  better  than 
any  other. 

Whole- Arm  Movement. 

The  whole-arm  movement  consists  in  the  use  of 
the  whole-arm  from  the  shoulder,  the  elbow  being 
raised  slightly  from  the  desk.  This  movement  is 
mainly  used  for  striking  large  capitals.  For  practice 
it  is  highly  beneficial,  giving  steadiness  and  ease  to 

the  movement. 

Lines. 

Writing  is  the  complement  of  Drawing.  It  is 
supposed  that  instruction  has  been  given  upon  simple 
geometrical  lines. 

Base  Line. 

The  horizontal  line  on  which  the  writing  rests,  ia 
called  the  B<me  Line. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


Head  Line. 

The  horizontal  line  to  which  the  small  letters  ex- 
tend, is  called  the  Head  Line. 

Intermediate   Line. 

The  horizontal  line  to  which  the  semi-extended 
letters  reach,  is  called  ftie  Intermediate  Line. 

Top   Line. 

The  horizontal  line  to  which  the  loop  or  extended 
letters  extend,  is  called  the  Top  Line. 

Slants. 

A  straight  line  standing  to  the  right  of  a  vertical, 
forming  an  angle  of  52  degrees  with  the  horizontal, 
eives  the  Main  Slant. 

Connective  Slants. 

Curves  which  connect  straight  lines  in  small 
letters  are  made  on  an  angle  of  30  degrees,  and 
called  the  Connective  Slant. 

Space* 

Height. 

The  unit  for  measuring  the  height  of  letters  is  the 
small  letter  " »'"  without  the  dot,  both  for  small  and 
-capital  letters,  and  is  called  a  space. 

Width. 

The  unit  for  measuring  the  width  of  letters  is  the 
distance  between  the  two  slanting  straight  lines  in  the 
email  letter  "  u"  taken  horizontally,  and  is  called  a 
space. 


PENMANSHIP. 


Length. 

The  length  of  the  letter,  taking  "  i"  for  the  stand- 
ard, is  a  trifle  greater  than  the  width. 

Construction. 

The  construction  of  a  letter  is  to  tell  the  height, 
width,  angles,  turns  and  slant. 

Angles. 

The  angle  is  formed  by  a  straight  line  meeting  a 
curved  line. 

Turns. 

The  turn  is  formed  by  a  curve  line  meeting  a 
straight  line  ;  it  should  be  made  as  short  as  possible, 
without  making  an  angle. 

Form  —  (Small  Letters.) 
The  short  letters  are  — 


The  semi-extended  letters  are— 


The  extended  or  loop  letters  are  — 


Capital  Letters. 

Capital  letters  are  divided  into  three  classes  : 
First  class— 

0,  0,  @),  <&. 


PRINCIPLES.  89 


Second  class  — 


Principles. 

1.  A  straight  line  on  the  main  slant,  is  the  First 
Printipk. 

2.  A  right  curve,  usually  on  the  connective  slant, 
is  the  Second  Principle. 

3.  A  left  curve,  usually  on  the  connective  slant,  is 
the  Third  Principle. 

4.  A  loop  upon  the  main  slant,  is  the  Fourth 
Principle. 

5.  A  direct  oval  or  capital  O,  is  the  Fifth  Principle. 

6.  A  reversed  oval  upon  the  main  slant,  isthe^KriA 
Principle. 

7.  The  capital  stem  is  the  Seventh  Principle. 

Spacing. 

The  spacing  should  be  carefully  watched  in  writ- 
ing ;  nothing  adds  more  beauty  to  writing  than  uni- 
form and  correct  spacing. 

Counting. 

To  keep  the  members  of  the  class  together  and 
produce  a  steady  and  uniform  movement,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  apply  time  to  the  movements  of  the  pen 


90  PE-NMASSBIP. 

in  writing.  Some  pupils  move  too  rapidly,  without 
taking  pains  to  make  the  letters  ;  others  move  too 
slowly,  with  an  irregular,  tremulous  motion.  The 
best  results  have  been  attained  by  counting ;  we 
believe  it  to  be  the  best  and  only- way  to  teach  pupils 
to  write  in  a  body.  Directions  are  given  in  the 

tabulation. 

Shading. 

This  adds  beauty  to  the  writing,  but  it  should  be 
used  very  sparingly.  Capital  letters  should  be 
used  very  sparingly.  Capital  letters  should  be 
shaded,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  shade  small  letters. 

Requisites. 

In  order  to  progress,  pupils  should  be  supplied 
with  good  materials.  Nothing  is  gained  by  placing 
in  children's  hands  poor  materials.  The  blackboard 
should  be  used  in  every  exercise. 

Opening. 

The  same  order  and  system  should  prevail  in  the 
exercises  in  writing  as  in  any  other,  and  all  the  pupils 
should  be  required  to  write  during  the  exercise  ;  for 
any  deficiency  they  should  be  instructed  that  it  must 
be  made  up,  the  same  as  in  any  other  recitation . 

Seldom  do  we  see  the  whole  school  engaged  in  the 
writing  exercise. .  Open  and  close  the  exercise  care- 
fully ;  have  a  system. 

GENERAL  REMARKS.— The  pupils  on  their  first 
entrance  into  the  school-room,  should  be  supplied 
with  a  slate  ruled  on  one  side:  if  not  ruled  the  teacher 
•hould  rule  it  The  slate  pencil  should  be  long. 


SUGGESTIONS.  91 


Instruction  should  be  given  on  Lines  the  first  day, 
and  the  teacher  should  place  the  lines  on  the  board 
and  require  the  pupils  to  copy.  After  they  retire  to 
their  seats,  they  should  be  requested  to  reproduce  the 
work.  This  will  give  them  employment,  and  lead 
to  the  mastery  of  penmanship  in  a  very  few  months. 
Pupils  should  first  be  taught  to  make  all  the  letters 
on  their  slates,  and  af  terthey  can  make  them  readily 
they  may.  then  use  the  lead  pencil  and  paper.  Pen 
and  ink  should  not  be  placed  in  their  hands  until 
they  can  make  all  the  letters,  both  small  and  capital, 
readily  and  perfectly. 

All  the  exercises  of  the  school  require  more  or  less 
writing,  and  the  teacher  should  begin  it  at  an  early 
day.  Some  teach  pupils  to  print  at  first ;  while*  I  do 
not  think  this  to  be  the  correct  way,  yet  good  results 
have  been  attained.  Pupils  can  be  taught  to  form 
the  script  characters  as  early  as  the  printed. 

In  the  schools  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
New  York  and  Brooklyn,  and  many  other  cities,  the 
pupils  are  taught  to  write  the  first  year.  They  have 
attained  the  most  satisfactory  results  in  spelling  and 
in  reading  through  the  teaching  of  penmanship. 
We  know  from  experience  in  the  school  room  that 
children  under  eight  years  of  age  can  be  made  good 
penmen  in  one  year's  time.  We  would  encourage 
teachers  to  try  it ;  if  at  the  end  of  the  year  you  have 
not  succeeded,  blame  yourself. 

Analysis  of  a  Letter. 
». — $he  letter  uin  is  one  space  in  height 


9B  PENMANSHIP. 


two  spaces  in  width^  composed  of  the 
right  curve,  main  slant}  and  the  right 
eurve. 

REMARKS.— The  analysis  above  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary at  first,  but  a  fuller  one  may  be  given  after  they 
understand  the  parts,  as  follows  : 

i. — $he  letter  f(i >}  is  one  space  in  height 
and  two "  spaces  in  width^  composed  of  the 
right  curve}  upper  angle;  main  slant}  lower 

turn,  and  the  right  curve. 
Also  it  may  be  analyzed  by  principles,  viz  : 
1. — $he  letter  ff  in  is  composed  of  the 
second  principle,  first  principle f  and  the 
second  principle. 

List  of  Manuals  oil  Penmanship. 

Key  to  Spencerian  Penmanship— $1.50  ;  Compen- 
dium of  do.,  $1.75  ;  Theory  of  do.,  25  cts.  ;  Ivison, 
Blakeman,  Taylor  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Manual  of  Penmanship — $1.25 ;  Potter,  Ainsworth 
&  Co.,  New  York. 

Hand-Book  of  Penmanship— 50  cts  ;  VanAntwerp, 
Bragg  &  Co.,  Cincinnati. 


DRAWING. 
INTRODUCTION. 


How  it  ever  came  to  pass  that  arithmetic  should  be 
taught  to  the  extent  attained  in  the  public  schools  of 
the  civilized  world,  while  geometry  is  almost  wholly 
excluded  from  them,  is  a  problem  from  which  the 
author  of  this  manual  has  often  sought  a  solution, 
but  with  only  this  result,  viz. :  that  arithmetic,  being 
considered  an  elementary  branch,  is  included  in  all 
systems  of  instruction  ;  but,  geometry,  being  re. 
garded  as  a  higher  branch  is  reserved  for  systems  of 
advanced  education,  and  is,  on  that  account,  reached 
by  but  very  few  of  the  many  who  need  it. 

The  error  here  is  fundamental.  Instead  of  teach, 
ing  the  elements  of  all  branches,  we  teach  elementary 
branches  much  too  exhaustively.  The  elements  of 
Geometry  are  much  easier  to  learn,  and  are  of  more 
value  when  learned,  than  advanced  Arithmetic  ;  and, 
if  A  is  to  leave  the  school  with  merely  a  common 
school  education,  he  would  be  much  better  prepared 
for  the  active  duties  of  life  with  a  little  Arithmetic  and 
tome  Geometry,  than  with  more  Arithmetic  and  no 
Geometry. 

Unthinking  persona  frequently  assert  that  young 


DRAWING.' 


children  are  incapable  of  reasoning,  and  that  the 
truths  of  Geometry  are  too  abstract  in  their  nature  to 
be  apprehended  by  them. 

To  these  objections,  it  may  be  answered,  that  any 
ordinary  child,  five  years  of  age,  can 'deduce  the  con- 
cltision  of  a  syllogism  if  he  understands  the  terms  con- 
tained in  the  propositions  ;  and  that  nothing  can  be 
more  palpable  to  the  mind  of  a  child  than  forms, 
magnitudes,  and  directions. 

There  are  many  teachers  who  imagine  that  the  per- 
ceptive faculties  of  children  should  be  cultivated  ex- 
clusively in  early  youth,  and  that  the  reason  should  be 
addressed  only  at  a  later  period. 

It  is  certainly  true  that  perception  should  receive 
a  larger  share  of  attention  than  the  other  faculties 
during  the  first  school  years  ;  but  it  is  equally  certain 
that  no  faculty  can  be  safely  disregarded,  even  for  a 
time.  The  root  does  not  attain  maturity  before  the 
stem  appears  ;  neither  does  the  stem  attain  its  growth 
before  its  branches  come  forth  to  give  birth  in  turn 
to  leaves  ;  but  root,  stein  and  leaves  are  found  simul- 
taneously in  the  youngest  plant. 

That  the  reason  may  be  profitably  addressed 
through  the  medium  of  geometry  at  as  early  an  age 
as  seven  years  is  asserted  by  no  less  an  authority  than 
President  Hill  of  Harvard  College,  who  says,  in  the 
preface  to  his  admirable  little  geometry,  that  a  child 
seven  years  old  may  be  taught  geometry  more  easily 
than  one  of  fifteen. 

The  author  holds  that  this  science  should  be  taught 
In  all  primary  and  grammar  schools,  for  the  same 


GEOMETRY  AND  DKA  WING.  9C 

reasons  that  apply  to  all  other  branches.  One  of  these 
reasons  will  be  stated  here,  because  it  is  not  sufficient- 
ly recognized  even  by  teachers.  It  is  this  : 

The  prime  object  of  school  instruction  is  to  place 
in  the  hands  of  the  pupil  the  means  of  continuing  his 
studies  without  aid  after  he  leaves  school.  The  man 
who  is  not  a  student  of  some  part  of  God's  works 
cannot  be  said  to  live  a  rational  life.  It  is  the  proper 
business  of  the  school  to  do  for  each  branch  of  science 
exactly  what  is  done  for  reading. 

Children  are  taught  to  read,  not  for  the  sake  of 
what  is  contained  in  their  readers,  but  that  they  may 
be  able  to  read  all  through  life,  and  thereby  fulfil  one 
of  the  requirements  of  civilized  society.  So,  enough 
of  each  branch  of  science  should  be  taught  to  enable* 
the  pupil  to  pursue  it  after  leaving  school. 

If  this  view  is  correct,  it  is  wrong  to  allow  a  pupil 
to  reach  the  age  of  fourteen  years  without  knowing 
even  the  alphabet  of  Geometry.  He  should  be  taught 
at  least  how  to  read  it. 

It  certainly  does  seem  probable,  that  if  the  youth 
who  now  leave  school  with  so  much  Arithmetic,  and 
no  Geometry,  were  taught  the  first  rudiments  of  the 
science,  thousands  of  them  would  be  led  to  the  study 
of  the  higher  mathematics  in  their  mature  years,  by 
reasons  of  those  attractions  of  Geometry  which 
Arithmetic  does  not  possess. 

The  author  would  combine  Geometry  and  Drawing, 
and  make  it  purely  a  development  exercise.  But 
very  little  attention  has  been  given  to  this  subject  in 
the  schools  of  this  country.  It  is  one  of  the  first 


96  DRAWING. 


subjects  that  should  receive  attention  in  the  primary 
classes.  There  ia  no  subject  that  will  produce  such 
satisfactory  results  in  so  short  a  time  as  Drawing. 
It  gives  a  good  discipline  to  the  mind,  as  it  deals  at 
first  with  geometrical  terms,  as  lines,  angles,  circles, 
etc.  It  is  an  exercise  well  calculated  to  develop 
reason  and  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  The 
eye  is  trained  to  observe  and  compare  objects ;  and 
the  hand  is  trained  to  execute. 

It  should  precede  all  the  primary  work  in  the 
school  ;  should  be  taught  before  reading,  spelling, 
writing  numbers,  etc.  It  is  the  complement  of  writ- 
ing and  map-drawing ;  it  is  a  source  of  endless  amuse- 
ment and  instruction.  How  much  more  quick  and 
'satisfactory  is  the  process  of  delineating  an  object 
by  drawing,  than  that  of  describing  it  by  words. 
The  requirement  of  this  art  necessitates  also  the  right 
use  of  the  faculties  of  sight,  observatiotn,  imitative- 
ness  and  even  conception. 

Precedence  is  always  given  to  knowledge,  and  not 
to  manual  execution.  The  teacher  who  has  at  the 
end  nothing  to  show  but  finely  drawn  lines,  has  given 
poor  instruction.  His  class  should  be  abl-i  to  sustain 
a  thorough  examination,  based  on  the  p-iaciples  of 
geometrical  terms.  It  is  expected  that  vhe  teacher 
will  thoroughly  instruct  the  pupils  in  the  methods  of 
work,  and  in  the  definitions  of  terms,  a  thing  that 
cannot  be  done  without  frequent  review. 

Elementary  Drawing,  when  taught  in  a  rational, 
systematic  manner,  is  one  of  the  easiest  and  one  of 
the  most  delightful  things  to  teach  to  children.  Like 


ELEMENTARY  DEFINTIONB.  9? 

other  studies  it  must  be  made  compulsory,  and  not 
be  left  to  the  decision  of  the  teacher  and  pupil. 
There  must  be  examinations  and  promotions,  as  in 
other  branches. 

Satisfactory  results  in  drawing  are  no  more  de- 
pendent upon  special  gilts  on  the  part  of  pupils, 
than  satisfactory  results  in  arithmetic  are  dependent 
upon  special  mathematical  gifts.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary that  the  pupils  set  about  the  study  of  drawing  as 
they  set  about  the  study  of  arithmetic,  geography  or 
grammar. 

Elementary  Definitions  of  Drawing* 

1.  That  which  has  position  but  no  dimensions,  is  a 
Point. 

2.  That  which  has  length,  but  neither  breadth  nor 
thickness,  is  a  Line. 

8.  A  line  that  does  not  change  its  direction  at  any 
point,  is  a  Straight  Line;  it  indicates  the  shortest 
distance  between  two  points. 

4.  A  line  that  changes  its  direction  at  every  point, 
is  a  Curved  Line. 

5  A  line  that  changes  its  direction  at  some  of  its 
points,  is  a  Broken  Line. 

6.  A  straight  line  that  points  to  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  is  a  Vertical  Line 

7.  A  straight  line  tbat  points  to  the  horizon,  is  a 
Horizontal  Line. 

8.  A  straight  line  that  is  neither  vertical  nor  hor- 
izontal, is  an  Oblique  Line. 

9.  A  line  that  bends  regularly,  and  if  continued, 
would  form  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  is  a  Simple 
Curve. 


DRA  WIN9. 


10.  A  line  composed  of  two  or  more  simple  corves, 
IB  a  Compound  Curve. 

11.  A  plane  figure  bounded  by  a  compound  curve 
struck  from  two  centers,  is  an  Ellipse. 

12.  A  line  that  is  regular  in  all  its  parts  is  a  Regu- 
lar Broken  Line. 

18.  A  line  that  is  irregular  in  some  of  all  of  its 
pai  ts,  is  an  Irregular  Broken  Line. 

14.  Lines  that  extend  in  the  same  direction  and 
whose  opposite  points  are  always  the  same  distance 
from  one  another  throughout  their  entire  length,  are 
Parallel  Lines. 

15.  Lines  where  the  points  are  connected  are  Con- 
tinuous. 

16.  Lines  where  the  points  are  disconnected  are 
Discontinuous. 

17.  The  difference  in  the  direction  of  two  straight 
lines,  is  an  Angle. 

18.  An  angle  which  is  formed  by  the  meeting  of 
two  straight  lines  perpendicular  to  each  other,  is  a 
Right  Angle. 

19.  An  angle  which  is  less  than  a  right  angle,  is  an 
Acute  Angle. 

20.  An  angle  which  is  greater  than  a  right  angle,  ia 
an  Obtuse  Angle. 

21.  A  plane  figure  having  three  sides,  is  a  Triangle. 

22.  A  triangle  that  has  one  right  angle,  is  a  Right- 
Angled  Triangle. 

23.  A  triangle  that  has  one  obtuse  angle,  is  an  Ob 
tuse-Angled  Triangle. 

24.  A  triangle  whose  angles  are  all  acute,  IB  ao 
Acute- Angled  Triangle. 


ELEMENTARY  DEFINITIONS. 


25.  A  triangle  where  the  three  sides  are  equal  to 
each  other,  is  an  Equilateral  Triangle. 

26  A  triangle  where  the  three  sides  are  of  unequal 
length,  is  a  Scalene  Triangle. 

27.  A  triangle  where  two  of  its  sides  are  equal,  is 
an  Isosceles  Triangle. 

28.  A  plane  figure  having  four  sides,  is  a  Quad- 
rilateral. 

29.  A  quadrilateral  that  has  no  two  sides  parallel, 
is  a  Trapezium. 

30.  A  quadrilateral  where  only  two  Bides  are  par- 
allel, is  a  Trapezoid. 

31.  A  quadrilateral  whose  opposite  sides  are  par- 
allel, is  a  Parallelogram. 

32.  A  right-angled  parallelogram,  is  a  Rectangle. 

33.  A  parallelogram  whose  opposite  sides  are  equal 
but  which  has  no  right  angles,  is  a  Rhomboid. 

34.  A  parallelogram  with  four  equal  sides,  but  the 
angles  not  right  angles,  is  a  Rhombus. 

35.  A  figure  having  four  equal  sides  and  four  right 
angles,  is  a  Square,  or  an  Equilateral  Rectangle. 

36.  A  figure  that  has  four  right  angles,  but  only  its 
opposite  sides  equal,  is  an  Oblong. 

37.  A  plane  figure  bounded  by  a  curved  line,  every 
part  of  which  is  equally  distant  from  a  point  within 
called  its  centre,  is  a  Circle. 

38.  A  straight  line  drawn  from  the  centre  to  the 
circumference,  is  a  Radius. 

39.  A  straight  line  drawn  through  the  centre  and 
touching  the  circumference  on   both  sides,  is  the 
Diameter. 


100 


DRAWING. 


40.  Lines  drawn  from  side  to  side,  passing  through 
the  centre,  are  the  Diameters  of  a  Square. 

41.  Lines.connecting  the  opposite  angles  of  a  square 
are  called  the  Diagonals  of  a  Square, 

42.  The  straight  line  connecting  the  ends  of  a  curve 
is  the  Base. 

43.  The  perpendicular  distance  from  the  base  to 
the  highest  point  of  the  curve  is  the  Altitude. 

44.  A  straight  line  which  touches  the  circumfer- 
ence of  a  circle  at  two  points,  but  which  is  shorter 
than  the  diameter,  is  a  Chord. 

45.  Any  part  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  is  an 

Arc. 

Geometry.— Elementary  Exercise* 

A.  Point  and  Lines, 
I  Print. 

!a.  Vertical, 
b.  Horizontal. 
c.  Oblique. 

a.  Simple. 

IL  Line.  \  2  Curved.  \  b.  Compound, 
c.  Elliptical. 


3.  Broken 


(  a.  Regular. 
\  b.  Irregular. 


Parallel. 

•  Continu- 
[ous. 


Discon- 

[Linuoua. 


H.  Triangles. 


B.   Combination  of  Straight  Lines. 

( 1.  Right.     ) 

I.  Angles.    <  2.  Acute.     }•  Two  lines. 
(3.  Obtuse.  ) 

1.  Classified.  1 1.  Equilateral, 
according  <  2.  Scalene. 

to  sides.    -  (  3.  Isosceles. 

2.  Classified  (  1.  Right-angled, 
according  -j  2.  Acute-angled, 
to  angles,  ( 3.  Obtuse-angled , 


Thre« 
lines. 


MANUALS  OF  DRAWING.  101 

fl.  Trapezium.  j  1.  Square.  "1 

II   Onadri- j  2- TraPezoid-     I1-  Rectangle.  (2.  Oblong.  1  Four 
latanlf     1  3.  Paral'og'ms.  •<  2.  Rhomboid,  [lines, 

MlwdlS.    [  1 3.  Rhombus.  J 

All  who  produce  good  figures  should  be  allowed 
to  place  them  on  the  board.  This  will  hint  to  others, 
and  encourage  all  to  do  well  enough  to  be  allowed 
to  draw  on  the  board.  Some  of  these  figures  the 
teacher  gives  to  the  class  as  dictation  exercises,  either 
in  the  present  shape  or  modified.  Figures  should 
never  be  drawn  less  than  an  inch  in  size,  and  the 
pupil  should  take  positions  three  or  four  feet  away, 
to  criticise  his  work.  If  the  class  is  large,  divide  it 
into  equal  parts,  and  let  one  draw  at  the  board  each 
day,  while  the  others  draw  on  their  slates. 

The  teacher  needs  to  study  a  Manual  on  Drawing, 
hi  order  to  teach  it  thoroughly  and  successfully. 
Among  others  we  would  refer  them  to  Krusi's 
Manuals  ol  Drawing,  Synthetic,  Analytic  and  Per- 
spective, 75  cts.  each,  published  by  D.  Appleton  & 
Co.,  New  York ;  Smith's  Manual,  Primary  $1.25,  and 
Intermediate  $2.50,  published  by  L.  Prang  &  Co., 
Boston  ;  Bartholomew's  Manual  $1.25,  published  by 
Potter,  Ainsworth  &  Co.,  New  York ;  Mark's  First 
Lessons  in  Geometry,  90  cts.,  published  by  Ivison, 
Blakeman,  Taylor  &  Co.,  New  York. 


PART  l:  LANGUAGE. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


They  who  feel  an  inward  call  to  teach  and  en- 
lighten their  countrymen,  should  deem  it  an  import- 
ant part  of  their  duty  to  draw  out  the  stores  of  thought 
which  are  already  latent  in  their  native  language,  to 
purify  it  from  the  corruptions  which  time  brings  upon 
all  things,  to  endeavor  to  give  distinctness  and  pre- 
cision to  whatever  in  it  is  confused,  or  obscure,  or 
dimly  seen. 

We  do  not  wish  to  condemn  the  study  of  grammar; 
every  teacher  should  understand  it,  and  pupils  who 
are  able  to  digest  the  science  and  assimilate  the 
knowledge  should  be  encouraged  to  study  it  But 
we  believe  that  a  majority  of  pupils  have  formed  a 
distaste  for  the  study  of  grammar,  because  it  was  in- 
troduced at  too  early  an  age.  Lessons  in  Language 
should  receive  attention  from  the  first ;  but  they  should 
be  free  from  all  definitions,  grammatical  rules,  analy- 
sis and  parsing ;  these  only  clog  the  memory  and 
signify  nothing  but  mere  notions  of  general  terms. 

Definitions  and  rules  are  results,  and  we  should 
seek  to  attain  these  results  by  practical  work  through 
the  study  of  the  art  of  Language ;  then,  and  not 


OBJECT  OF  LANQ  UA  OE  LESSONS.          103 


until  then,  shall  we  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  their 
character  and  an  appreciation  of  their  usefulness. 

The  Object  to  Teach  Pupils  to  Speak  and  Write 
Correctly. 

The  object  of  the  study  of  grammar  is  "  To  teach  tht 
art  of  correct  expression  and  the  science  of  language.1 
The  study  of  our  text  book  on  grammar,  does  not  as  a 
rule,  attain  these  results.  Why  ?  Because  grammar, 
proper,  is  the  study  of  the  science  of  language. 
Technical  grammar  belongs  to  the  advanced  course, 
and  a  majority  of  our  pupils,  who  leave  school  before 
the  age  of  twelve  years,  should  pursue  the  study  of 
language,  which  would  be  of  use  through  life ; 
whereas  the  study  of  grammar  will  be  of  but  little, 
if  any,  use. 

In  Language  we  believe  that  the  duty  of  preparing 
the  soil,  and  planting  the  seed,  is  with  the  primary 
teacher.  Correct  sentences  should  always  be  used  in 
the  presence  of  the  pupil  ;  if  the  teacher  be  careful  in 
this  direction,  in  no  case  using  incorrect  language, 
the  ear  becomes  accustomed  to  forms  of  expression, 
and  the  child  will  unconsciously  acquire  the  correct 
forms.  It  cannot  be  learned  by  setting  children  to 
classifying,  conjugating  or  declining.  They  must 
learn  the  art  of  language  and  through  the  art  come  up 
to  the  science.  Language  is  a  growth.  It  cannot  be 
stereotyped.  Language  and  thought  have  reciprocal 
influence.  Right  habits  of  language  produce  rlgnt 
thinking,  and  vice  versa.  The  language  of  a  person 
is  a  test  and  evidence  of  his  thoughts  and  mental  cul- 
ture. The  chief  cause  of  alarm  is  on  account  of  the 


LANGUAGE. 


woful  ignorance  of  English  and  the  faulty  use  of  our 
mother  tongue  among  nominally  intelligent  and  edu- 
cated people — even  among  teachers,  who  of  all  others 
should  use  pure  language.  The  teacher  is  responsi- 
ble for  the  language  of  his  pupils. 

Good  Language— How  Acquired. 

We  acquire  language  through  imitation ;  the 
pupil  who  has  always  heard  good  language, 
will  use  goo'l  language  ;  his  ability  to  use  good  lan- 
guage does  not  depend  upon  his  knowledge  of  gram- 
mar, but  upon  his  having  heard  good  English,  read 
good  English  and  practised  good  English.  Without 
further  comment  upon  language,  we  would  say,  that 
whatever  else  may  be  omitted  in  teaching, — no  teacher 
can  afford  to  dispense  with  the  language  exercise. 

"I  had  rather  speak  five  words  with  my  understanding, 
that  by  my  voice  I  might  teach  others  also,  than  a  thous- 
and words  in  an  unknown  tongue."— I  Cor.  XIV :  19. 


FIRST  LESSONS.  105 


LESSON  I. 


I.  Directions. 

1.  Ask  the  children  to  tell  tne  names  of  the  objects — 

a.  In  the  school-room,  the  yard,  the  house,  ete. 

b.  Made  of  wood,  iron,  gold,  wool,  cotton,  etc. 

c.  Manufactured  by  the  carpenter,  moulder,  etc. 

2.  Ask  the  pupil  to  tell  the  names  of  the  parts  of 

things. 

3.  To  name  some  of  the  qualities  of  things. 

4.  To  tell  the  uses  of  things. 

77.  Cautions. 

1.  Insist  on  correct  articulation. 

2.  Form  correct  ideas  ;  then  insist  on  the  intelligent 

use  of  the  terms. 

8.  Let  every  exercise  bear  upon  the  correct  USE  of 
language. 

Ill  Results. 

1.  The  command  of  language. 

2.  The  concise  use  of  language. 

3.  Increased  mental  power. 

REMARKS. 

The  pupils  at  first  will  mention  the  names  of  things 
In  the  wildest  confusion.  The  teacher  listens  patiently 
for  a  few  seconds,  then  kindly  bids  them  stop,  and 
tells  them  to  begin  at  a  certain  part  of  the  room  and 
to  speak  one  at  a  time,  and  name  things  in  order. 

In  the  answers  constant  attention  must  be,  paid  to 
the  pronunciation  of  words — distinct  and  correct  artic- 
olation  being  one  of  the  FIRST  requisites  of  correct 
language. 


106  LANGUAGE. 


Yet  this  should  not  be  insisted  upon  to  such  an 
extent,  as  to  make  it  irksome  to  the  pupils.  The  child 
can  attain  perfection  only  gradually,  and  the  teacher 
should  encourage  but  not  drive.  Indeed,  the  child 
needs  no  driving  ;  he  will  work  cheerfully  and  zeal 
ously  with  the  leader  who  has  learned  the  art  of 
working  with  the  child. 

As  the  names  of  objects  are  given  by  the  children, 
the  teacher  should  write  these  names  in  columns 
on  the  board,  requiring  the  children  to  spell  each 
word  as  it  is  written,  assisting  or  correcting  when 
necessary. 

Let  the  children  say  something  about  each  object, 
the  teacher  helping  them  to  determine  how  far  the 
terms  they  apply  are  appropriate. 

The  teacher  should  add  to  these  descriptions  the 
names,  and  lead  the  children  on  to  the  formation  of 
simple  statements  in  their  shortest  form. 

Capital  Letters  and  the  Fall  Stop. 

In  the  written  exercise,  the  children  should  be  led 
to  observe  that  each  sentence  begins  with  a  capital 
letter,  and  ends  with  a  period.  The  teacher  will 
use  JUDGMENT  in  the  assignment  of  the  directions  in 
each  lesson. 

The  directions  should  be  written  on  the  board,  one 
at  a  time,  and  the  pupils  requested  to  follow  th« 
directions,  and  read  the  statements  from  the  slate. 
After  an  exercise  has  been  carefully  examined,  the 
teacher  should  require  the  class  to  reproduce  it. 

The  children  may  be  supplied  with  little  books,  fa 
which  to  write  out  these  lessons  at  home.  For  som« 


PARTS  OF  OBJECTS.  107 

time  they  should  not  be  required  to  originate  any- 
thing for  themselves,  but  merely  to  reproduce  that 
which  has  been  taught  in  school.  They  will  find 
pleasure  in  doing  that  which  they  can  do  well. 

When  all  the  objects  in  the  room  have  formed  the 
subjects  of  such  lessons,  those  in  the  play-ground,  the 
street,  or  in  the  fields,  may  be  resorted  to,  gradually 
extending  the  circle  to  more  remote  objects. 

At  least  a  dozen  lessons  of  this  description  should 

be  given. 

Parts  of  Objects. 

After  giving  lessons  on  objects,  the  teacher  will  ask 
the  pupils  to  name  the  parts  of  objects,.and  the  num- 
ber of  those  parts.  This  is  the  second  step  in  lan- 
guage. 

In  these  exercises,  the  teacher  should  be  careful  not 
to  let  the  children  call  that  a  part,  which  is  mere- 
ly a  property  or  an  accident.  A  part  of  a  material 
object  is  a  portion  of  it;  if  the  part  is  removed,  the 
object  will  be  diminished  iir  size  and  weight.  It  is 
improper,  then,  to  consider  as  parts  the  lines  and 
surfaces  of  objects. 

The  exercises  on  the  parts  of  objects  should  be 
varied  in  many  ways,  so  as  to  arouse  and  maintain  a 
lively  interest  in  the  pupils. 

For  example — the  parts  of  a  pin  are  the  head,  tftaft 
and  point ;  of  a  chair,  legs,  rounds,  seat  and  back. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  language  is  to  obtain 
ideas.  The  second  is  the  proper  expression  of  the 
ideas  when  obtained. 

To  acquire  ideas,  it  is  necessary  to  cultivate  habits 
of  observation  ;  to  use  the  eyes  in  noticing  not  only 


108  LANGUAGE. 


entire  objects,  but  also  their  different  parts  ;  to  con- 
sider their  qualities,  uses,  operations  and  effects ; 
together  with  their  relations  to  other  things.  The 
mind  employed  in  such  processes  acquires  material 
for  its  own  operations,  and  develops  ideas  and 
thoughts  as  it  were  spontaneously. 

For  this  exercise  in  language  it  is  proposed  that  the 
children  be  required  to  enumerate  the  parts  of  some 
visible  object,  according  to  the  following 

Example. 

A  House. 
Its  parts  are  : 

The  stone,    The  sills,      The  plates,      The  ceiling, 
The  mortar,  The  posts,    The  rafters,    The  floor. 
The  joists,    The  doors,  The  shingles, 
The  beams,  The  nails,    The  chimneys, 

Example  • 

Glass, 
Its  qualities : 

It  is  hard,  inodorous, 

solid,  colorless, 

smooth,  heavy, 

bright,  durable, 

transparent,  inflexible, 

brittle,  insoluble, 

cold,  dry, 

tasteless,  fusible,  etc. 

Its  uses : 

For  windows  to  admit  the  light, 
For  spectacles  to  assist  the  sight, 
For  useful  vessels,  such  as  goblets,  pitchers,  bottles, 
phials,  lamps,  etc. 

Thus  far  we  have  endeavored  to  teach  the  Subjects 
methodically,  so  as  to  teach  the  pupils  the  power  of 


HA  VS  A  DEFINITE  PLAN.  1Q» 


rapid,  complete,  and  accurate  observation,  and  to  pre- 
pare them  for  concise,  complete,  and  accurate  descrip- 
tion. 

The  teacher  in  order  to  give  the  children  informa- 
tion on  qua'itiea  of  objects,  so  that  they  may  form 
cornet  impressions,  should  subject  the  object  to  more 
or  lessco...pl.t:at  d  experiments.  The  names  of  some 
of  these  qualities,  e.  g.,  compressibility,  flexibility, 
etc.,  must  be  fully  illustrated. 

This  exercise  will  furnish  abundant  opportunity  for 
the  energetic  teacher  to  invent  various  mennsof  enter- 
tainment and  instruction. 

Interrogate  the  children  closely  upon  the  uses  of 
objeets,  and  require  them  to  write  short  compositions 
about  objects,  to  tell  the  name,  parts,  qualities  and 
uses. 

The  Teacher  must  have  a  Plant 

The  teacher  must  have  a  plan  of  presenting 
subjects.  Experience  daily  proves  that  an  unprepared 
lesson,  or  what  may  be  termed  extempore  teaching  is 
sure  to  be  diffuse  and  indifferent ;  besides  the  teacher 
must  NEVER  FAIL  to  enter  the  class  well  prepared, 
not  only  in  regard  to  the  OBJECT  on  which  he  intends 
to  exercise  his  class,  but  upon  the  OKDER  in  which 
the  exercises  are  to  be  conducted,  and  upon  the  man 
ner  in  which  Ihe  individual  jiupils  aie  to  be  interro- 
gated. He  must  himself  have  clear  and  distinct  ideas, 
must  observe  accurately  and  think  carefully,  concisely 
and  correctly. 

Without  these  requisites  the  teacher  will  fail  iu 
language  ;  with  them  he  will  accomplish  results  fox 
which  generations  will  thank  him. 


110  LANGUAGE. 


LESSON  II. 


I.  Direction*. 

1.  Give  the  children  words  similar  in  pronunciation, 
but  different  in  spelling. 

2.  Ask  the  children — 

a.  To  find  the  words  in  the  spelling-book. 

b.  To  write  all  the  words  they  know,  that  have 

the  words  mentioned  in  them. 

c.  To  make  a  spelling-lesson  of  the  words  named. 

d.  To  write  statements,  using  the  words  named. 

e.  To  write  a  composition,  using  the  statements. 

II.  Cautions. 

1.  Require  the  children  to  answer,  in  full  state- 

ments. 

2.  Give  constant  attention  to  distinct  articulation. 

3.  Correct  the  common  errors  in  pronunciation. 

4.  Make  the  exercise  pleasant  and  instinctive. 

III.  Results. 

1.  The  children  will  understand  the  meaning  of 

words. 

2.  They  will  learn  correct  simple  expression. 

3.  They  will  learn  how  to  write  and  spell. 

An  exact  copy  of  a  lesson  given  in  the  Primary 
Department  of  the  State  Normal  School  in  Buffalo, 
New  York,  is  here  appended. 

The  words  for  practice,  beech  and  beach.  List  of 
words,  given  by  the  pupils  : 

/.  Seech.  II.  Beacli. 

1.  beech-tree,  1.  sand-beach, 

2.  beech-nut,    ._:,         2.  shell-beach, 


A  NORMAL  LESSON.  Ill 

3.  beech-leaf,  3.  pebbly-beach, 

4.  beech- wood,  4.  beach- timber, 

5.  beech-root,  5.  Rye- beach, 

6.  beech-twig,  6.  ocean-beach. 

7.  beech-bark, 

8.  beech-oil. 

Sentences. 

/.  Beech;  a  tree. 

1.  The  beech-  trees  make  a  nice  shade  in  summer. 

2.  The  beech  has  a  smooth  green  bark. 

3.  The  squirrel  hides  btech-aute  in  his  hole  for  win- 
ter. 

4.  JSeccA-wood  snaps  in  the  fire. 

II.  Beach;  a  sandy  shore. 

1.  Year  before  last  we  all  went  to  ~Rje-beaeh  in 
vacation. 

2.  O,  see  the  pretty  pebbles  I  picked  up  on  the 
beach! 

3.  What  fun  it  is  to  walk  barefoot  on  the  dry  warm 
eand,  down  on  the  beach. 

III.  Compositions. 

1.  A  beech-tree  is  a  very  large  forest  tree.     It  haa 
little  three-cornered  beech-nuts  on  it.     I  was  out  in 
the  country  once  and  I  saw  very  many  little  shells  of 
the  beech-nuts  where  the  squirrels  had  been.    The 
beech-wood  snaps  when  you  put  it  into  the  fire,  and 
makes  a  very  hot  fire. 

2.  I  went  down  to  the  Beach  one  day  and  the  sand 
was  all  smooth.    I  was  on  the  Beach  of  Lake  Mich- 
igan once  and  made  little  houses  of  the  Beach  pebbles 
in  the  sand.     Rye  Beach  is  where  the  people  go  to 
bathe  in  the  summer. 

3.  A  squirrel  is  a  animal  that   eats  Beech-nuts. 
When  you  burn  beech-wood  it  crackles  and  snaps  all 
on  the  carpet  like  ashes.    The  beech-tree  grows  to  be 
very  large  and  when  it  is  very  large  men  go  and  chop 
them  into  wood  the  beech-nut  is  very  good  to  eat  I 
had  some  twice  and  they  were  good  so'metimes  people 


LANGUAGE. 


get  oil  from  the  nuts  ;  beech  leaves  are  good  to  chew 
they  have  a  sour  taste  they  are  very  good;  beech  nuts 
are  big  as  the  end  of  the  finger  they  are  three  cornered 
the  beech-nut  tree  grows  in  Europe  and  america. 

The  last  was  written  by  the  youngest  girl  in  the 
class,  aged  eight.    All  are  printed  just  as  written. 
REMARKS. 

Children  from  eight  to  ten  years  of  age  may  be  able 
to  do  the  work,  if  the  teacher  carefully  follows  a  plan. 

The  teacher  should  spell  and  pronounce  the  words, 
if  the  children  cannot,and  also  tell  their  exact  meaning 
and  illustrate  them,  if  possible  ;  try  to  slraw  a 
picture  at  the  board,— 'an  indifferent  one  is  better 
than  none. 

The  object  is  to  teach  spelling,  writing  and  correct 
simple  expression. 

The  exercise  will  not  prove  irksome,  but  very 
pleasant  and  instructive. 

All  erroneous  expressions  made  use  of  by  the  chil- 
dren should  be  immediately  corrected  and  the  proper 
words  FIXED  upon  the  mind  by  repetition. 

In  the  daily  work  of  the  school-room,  all  definitions 
of  the  meaning  of  words,  and  all  descriptions  of 
places,  objects,  or  events,  whether  given  by  the  teacher 
to  the  children,  or  elicted  from  them,  should  be 
clothed  in  simple  and  definite  language,  and  FIXED  in 
the  memory  by  repetition. 

The  children  should  be  trained  to  give  COMPLETE 
answers  to  all  questions  which  are  put  to  them.  Ex- 
perience teaches  that  nothing  more  tends  to  make  an 
idea  clear  to  the  mind,  and  to  render  it  a  permanent 
possession,  thence  the  act  of  clothing  it  in  accurate  lan- 
guage. 


SUGGESTIONS.  US 


Monosyllabic  answers, as  "yes " and " no " should 
be  rejected,  except  when  they  express  all  that  can  be 
said  on  the  subject. 

The  value  of  such  instruction  has  not  hitherto  been 
sufficiently  appreciated,  but  it  is  hoped  that  these  les- 
sons will  show  how  suited  it  is  to  the  youthful  mind 
and  calculated  *o  promote  mental  training. 

In  these  lessons,  as  in  all  other  recitations,  it 
should  never  be  forgotten  that  pure  air  and  suitable 
temperature  are  of  prime  importance.  A  vitiated  or 
superheated  atmosphere  is  fatal  to  thought  effort. 
Horace  Mann  says : 

"A  THERMOMETER  SHOULD  BE  KEPT  IN  EVERY  SCHOOL- ROOM, 

and  hung  on  the  coolest  side  of  it.  The  proper  temperature 
should  be  determined  by  unchangeable  laws  :  not  by  the  variable' 
feelings  or  caprice  of  any  individual.  Without  a  thermometer, 
—if  the  teacher  be  habituated  to  live  in  the  open  air  ;  if  he  be 
healthy,  vigorous,  and  young  ;  if  he  walk  a  mile  or  several  miles 
to  school ;  and  especially,  if  he  keep  upon  his  feet  during 
school-hours,— the  scholars  will  be  drilled  into  a  resignation  to 
great  suffering  from  the  cold.  -If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  teacher 
lead  a  sedentary  life ;  if  his  health  be  feeble ;  if  he  step  into 
the  school-room  from  a  neighboring  door,  he  will,  perhaps  un- 
consciously, create  an  artificial  summer  about  himself,  and  sub- 
ject the  children  to  a  perilous  transition  in  temperature,  when- 
ever they  leave  his  tropical  regions.  In  this  way,  a  child's  lungs 
may  get  a  wound  in  early  life,  which  neither  Cuba  nor  the  south 
of  France  can  ever  afterward  heal.  A  selfish  or  inconsiderate 
master  will  burn  a  whole  roomful  of  children  during  the  chill, 
and  freeze  them  during  the  fever,  of  his  own  ague-fits.  They 
must  parch  or  congeal,  as  he  shivers  or  glows." 

Thermometers  may  be  purchased  cheaply  in  al- 
most any  village.  The  School-Room  Thermometer 
is  sent  post-paid  by  Davis,  Bardeen  &  Co.,  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  on  receipt  of  fifty  cents. 


114  LANGUAGE. 


LESSON  III. 


I.  Directions. 

1.  Hold  an  object  before  the  pupils  and  ask  them 
to  say  something  about,  it. 

2.  "Place  objects  of  the  same  kind  in  their  hands, 
and  let  the  pupils  describe  them;  first  an  oral,  second  a 
•written  description. 

8:  Let  the  pupil  compare  objects,  and  tell  their  dif- 
ferences, as  paper  and  leather,  lead  and  iron,  wood 
and  stoue,  etc. 

4.  Let  the  pupils  ascribe  different  qualities  to  one 
and  the  same  object. 

5.  Let  the  pupils  ascribe  the  same  quality  to  various 
objects. 

6.  Let  them  apply  many  descriptive  terms,  appli- 
cable to  various  objects. 

7.  Let  them  point  out  the  value  of  each  word  and 
state  what  it  adds  to  the  description. 

//.  Cautions. 

1.  See  that  the  children  form  correct  ideas. 

2.  Correct  all  improper  expressions. 

3.  Fix  the  new  word  in  the  mind  by  frequent  re- 
views. 

4.  The  teacher  should  assist  the  children  in  deter- 
mining the  suitability  of  words,   correcting  when 
necessary. 

5.  Encourage  the  children  to  reproduce  lessons  at 
home. 

777.  Result*. 

1.  To  train  the  children  to  SEE. 

2.  To  teach  them  to  COMPARE. 

3.  To  train  them  to  DO. 

4.  To  train  them  to  tell  what  they  SEE  and  DO. 


MAKING  SENTENCES.  115 


REMARKS. 

Tue  teacher  should  require  the  pupils  to  answer  in 
complete  statements,  and  encourage  them  to  examine 
the  objects  very  carefully. 

In  the  oral  description  let  the  children  give  the  gen- 
eral properties,  as  the  form  and  color;  then  the  parts, 
properties  and  uses.  In  the  written  description  re- 
quire the  work  to  be  expressed  neatly,  giving  atten- 
tion to  spelling \  writing,  capital  tetters,  and  punctu- 
ation. 

The  teacher  will  write  the  name  of  some  familiar 
object  on  the  board,  and  will  call  upon  the  children 
to  apply  to  it  various  qualities,  writing  them  as  they 
give  them.  It  may  be  necessary  to  assist  the  child- 
ren in  determining  the  suitability  of  the  qualities  • 
acd  also  in  spelling  the  more  difficult  words. 

We  may  suppose  a  lesson  in  which  the  given  name 
is  "  paper."  It  would  present  itself  in  such  a  form  as 
this:— 

The  paper  is  white. 
The  paper  is  thin. 
The  paper  is  smooth. 
The  paper  is  pliable,  etc. 

The  teacher  should  next  lead  the  children  to  notice 
that  the  word  "  paper  "  need  only  be  written  once, 
and  that  the  four  sentences  may  be  contracted  into 
one.  Then  the  teacher  directed  by  the  children 
writes: — 

Paper  is  white,  thin,  smooth  and  pliable. 

The  children  then  read  this  over,  and  are  lead  tc 
perceive  the  necessity  for  commas  in  those  places 
where  the  words  "the  paper  is"  are  omitted,  and 
also  the  use  of  the  word  "  and  "  between  the  last  two 


116  LANGUAGE. 

words  of  the  sentence.     Cover  the  board  and  require 
the  children  to  reproduce  the  lesson. 

When  the  same  quality  is  attributed  to  many  ob- 
jects, it  would  present  itself  in  such  a  form  as  this:— 
Glass  is  brittle. 
Chalk  is  brittle. 
Coal  is  brittle. 

Glass,  coal,  and  chalk  are  brittle. 
Iron  is  hard. 
Flint  is  hard. 
Glass  is  hard. 

Iron,  flint,  and  glass  are  hard. 
The  children  should  be  led  to  notice  the  stops  as  be- 
fore, and  the  change  of  the  word  "is"  for  "are." 

Let  the  children  observe  that  each  sentence  be- 
gins with  a'  capital  letter,  and  ends  with  a  period. 
Examine  each  slate,  and  require  the  children  to  re- 
produce correct  copies. 

Let  the  children  observe  that  words  used  in  a 
series  are  separated  by  a  comma. 

Require  the  children  to  write  many  sentences,  un- 
til this  fact  is  fixed  in  the  mind. 

A  practical  knowledge  of  language  can  only  be 
acquired  through  an  intelligent  use  of  it ;  children 
should  be  taught  to  speak  and  write  the  English  lan- 
guage correctly,  to  be  able  to  detect  the  more  frequent 
errors  and  correct  them.  These  results  can  only  be 
accomplished  through  intelligent  teaching. 

Children  should  not  be  taught  the  final  deductions 
of  the  science  of  language,  which  are  definitions; 
they  should  not  commit  to  memory  arbitrary  rules, 
but  learn  the  correct  use  of  language.  The  ordinary 
methods  of  teaching  grammar  do  little  to  establish 
this. 


BEGUN.  117 


LESSON  IV. 

/.  Direction*. 

1.  Ask  the  pupil  to  give  a  name  that  will  apply  to 
everything  which  they  can  perceive. 

2.  Ask  the  pupils— 

a.  To  classify  the  different  kinds  of  matter. 

b.  To  name  the  different  classes. 

c.  To  name  things  that  belong  to  the  individual 

classes, 

d.  To  observe  and  tell  what  animals  and  vegeta- 

bles do. 

e.  To  notice  and  tell  what  animals  can  do  which 

the  vegetable  cannot  do. 

f.  To  observe  the  differences  between  the  food 

of  plants,  and  that  of  animals. 

g.  To  write  a  statement  using  the  words  named, 
h.  To  write  a  short  composition,  combining  the 

statements. 

II.  Cautions. 

1  "Never  assist  the  child  to  do  a  thing  that  it  can 
do  itself"  with  reasonable  effort. 

2.  Remember  that  it  is  a  difficult  thing  to  form  a 
thought  and  express  it. 

///.  Results. 

1.  Il  will  arouse  the  curiosity  of  the  pupils. 

2.  It  will  enlist  their  undivided  attention. 

3.  It  will  cause  them  to  observe  closely. 

4.  It  will  teach  them  the  importance  of  classifies 
Jon. 

REMARKS. 
The  aim  of  these  language  lessons  is  to  enlarge  the 


118  LANGUAGE. 


circle  of  the  pupil's  knowledge  respecticg  the  objects 
brought  under  inquiry.  The  true  aim  is  not  only  to 
impart  knowledge  rigMy,  and  teach  the  elements  of 
order,  but  to  train  the  powers  of  the  pupil.  This  is 
its  dignity  ;  this  its  peculiar  distinction.  The  main 
design  is  the  growth  and  development  of  the  whole 
being. 

In  order  to  teach  language  effectively  we  must  begin 
the  process,  as  nature  meant  we  should  :  by  furnish- 
ing the  children  with  the  elements  out  of  which  lan- 
guage is  created,  namely,  a  knowledge  of  material 
things. 

The  teacher  should  place  upon  the  table  a  number 
of  articles,  that  belong  to  the  mineral,  vegetable  and 
animal  kingdoms.  He  should  ask  the  children  to 
examine  them  carefully,  and  to  tell  a  name  that  will 
apply  to  all  of  them.  (It  would  be  well  to  ask  the 
children  to  bring  different  things  from  their  homes.) 

The  children  will  give  the  following  names:  arti- 
cles, objects,  substances ;  they  may  not  be  able  to  give 
the  term  that  you  wish,  which  is  "matter."  Write 
the  words  on  the  board,  and  tell  the  children  that  the 
term  MATTER,  is  the  one  that  you  wish. 

Classification. 

After  the  children  become  familiar  with  this  term, 
you  may  ask  them  to  put  all  the  objects  of  the  same 
kind  into  groups.  They  will  learn  to  classify  objects — 
a  wry  important  lesson.  The  teacher  will  then  ask 
the  children  to  name  the  different  groups,  viz  :  min» 
»ral,  vegetable  and  animal.  (It  may  prove  a  surprise  to 
eome  of  the  children,  that  they  belong  to  the  animal 
kingdom.) 


FIRST,  WEAK:  THEN  EXPRESSION.          119 


Many  lessons  may  be  given,  requiring  the  children 
to  name  things  that  belong  to  the  different  classes. 

The  teacher  should  require  the  children  to  bring  in 
long  lists  of  these  names  ;  an  exercise  of  this  nature 
will  prove  very  pleasant  and  instructive. 

Let  the  children  observe  that  the  animals  move 
about,  and  plants  are  stationary  ;  that  animals  and 
plants  take  food,  breathe,  grow  and  die  ;  that  plants 
feed  on  minerals ;  and  animals  on  vegetables  and 
animals. 

The  teacher«6hould  be  very  careful  about  assisting 
the  children;  it  may  be  well  to  let  a  question  remain 
unanswered  for  a  day  or  so  and  see  if  the  pupils  can- 
not find  out  the  answer  by  a  few  hours'  study. 

At  first,  with  the  exercises  on  language,  the  teacher 
should  reach  the  mind  only  through  the  senses,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  with  the  assistance  of  memory 
and  imagination. 

We  learn  by  observation  ;  the  human  mind  first 
perceives  the  impressions  made  upon  it  by  external 
objects  and  phenomena  through  the  various  inlets  of 
the  soul — the  senses,  and  forms  them  into  clear  and 
distinct  ideas. 

We  are,  then,  justified  in  stating  that  the  principal 
aim  of  school  education  is  to  teach  the  pupils  HOW 

TO  FORM  IDEAS  AND  HOW  TO  EXPRESS  THEM. 


130  LA.NGUA.aE. 


LESSON  V. 


"We  introduce  at  this  point  a  new  class  of  objects, 
viz :  Words  in  regard  to  some  of  their  offices.  We 
have  examined  the  nature  and  functions  of  other 
things  and  have  made  use  of  the  facts  thus  obtained 
as  material  for  language  development.  Words,  as 
will  be  seen,  can  be  made  to  give  us  a  large  stock  of 
•working  material  to  be  used  in  advancing  the  Art  of 

Language.^ 

The  Noun. 

Teacher—"  What  is  this  ?" 

Pupil—"  A  bell." 

"  Spell  the  word  bell.  " 

NOTE: — Pupil  spells  the  word,  and  teacher  writes  it 
on  the  board.  Obtain  and  dispose  of,  similarly,  the 
following:  book,  pencil,  cup,  Henry,  Aurora. 

11  What  are  these  on  the  board  ?" 

"They  are  words." 

1 '  Pronounce  this  word :    Henry. " 

"Henry." 

"When  you  see  or  hear  this  word,  of  what  do 
you  think  ?" 

"  I  think  of  a  boy." 

"  What  boy  ?" 

"  My  brother." 

"  Why,  when  you  hear  this  word,  do  you  think 
of  him  ?" 


THE  NOUN.  121 


'*  Because  that  is  bis  name." 

"  What  kind  of  word  is  it  ?" 

"A  name  word." 

41  Of  what  is  it  the  name  ?" 

41  It  is  the  name  of  a  person." 

"Of  what  is  the  word  cup  a  name  ?" 

"  The  name  of  a  thing." 

<(  Find  other  words  upon  the  board  that  are  the 
names  of  things."  (Pupils  find  pencil,  book,  bell.) 

"  Of  what  do  you  think  when  you  speak  this 
word  ?"  (referring  to  the  word  Aurora.) 

"Of  a  town." 

"  Why  do  you  think  of  a  place  ?" 

"Because  it  is  the  name  of  a  place." 

"Find  another  word  and  tell  of  what  that  is  the 
name." 

"  Wednesday  is  the  name  of  a  day." 

"  What  is  each  of  these  words  ?" 

"A  name." 

"Does  any  one  know  another  word  that  means 
the  same  as  name  ?"  (No  hands  are  raised.) 

"You  may  call  these  words  nouns."  (Pupila 
spell.) 

"  What  is  a  noun  ?" 

"  A  name  is  a  noun." 

"Give  me  twelve  names."  (Pupils  give  named 
and  spell  them.) 

For  to-morrow  write : 

1.  Ten  words  that  are  the  names  of  persona 

2.  Ten  words  that  are  the  names  of  things. 

3.  Ten  words  that  are  the  names  of  places. 


LANGUAGE. 


LESSON  VI. 


The  Common  Noun. 

"  What  is  this  ?"  (touching  one  of  the  boys.) 

"A  boy." 

"  What  are  you? "  (addressing  a  boy.) 

"A  boy."  (Address  several  boys  and  obtain 
similar  replies.) 

"  By  what  name  may  all  of  you  be  called  ?" 

"Boys." 

"A  boy  may  open  the  door."  (Several  boys  start 
to  obey.) 

"Why  do  so  many  of  you  start  -when  I  speak  ? 

"  We  don't  know  which  one  you  mean." 

"Why?" 

"  Because  the  name  boy  belongs  to  each  of  us." 

"  What  name  belongs  to  each  of  you  f  " 

"Boy." 

"  What  have  you  learned  to  call  a  word  that  ia  a 
name  ? " 

"  A  noun." 

"  What  then  is  the  word  boy  ? " 

"A  noun." 

"  Why  is  it  a  noun  ? " 

"  Because  it  is  a  name." 

"Because  the  name  applies  to  each  of  you,  what 
kind  of  a  name  is  it  ? " 


TEE  co.vj/ojv  youy.  123 

1 A  common  name." 

"  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  it  ?  " 

14  A  common  noun." 

"What  is  a  common  noun  ?" 

44  A  common  name  is  a  common  noun." 

"  But  when  is  a  name  common  ?  " 

14  When  it  applies  to  each  one  of  the  same  kind  of 
objects." 

14  What,  then,  is  a  common  noun  ?  " 

"  A  name  that  applies  to  each  one  of  the  same 
kind  of  objects  is  a  common  noun." 

14  Peter,  bring  me  five  things  that  have  a  common 
name.     What  are  these  called?  " 

14  Books." 

44  What  name  may  be  given  to  each  boy  and 'girl 
is  this  Echool  ?  " 

"Pupil." 

44  What  common  name  may  be  given  to  Miss , 

Miss ,  and  Miss ? " 

"Teacher."    44  Lady."     "Woman." 

44  What  kind  of  nouns  are  pencil,  pupiv,  U-acJia. 
lady,  boy,  girl?" 

44  Common  nouns." 

For  to-morrow  write  a  list  of  : 

1.  Twenty  common  nouns  that  are  names  of  ar« 
tides  of  furniture. 

2.  Twenty    common    nouns    that  are    names  of 
tools. 

3.  Twenty  common  nouns  that  are  names  of  vege- 
tables. 

4.  Twenty  common  nouns  that  are  names  of  num- 
erals. 


124  LANGUAGE: 


LESSON  VII. 


The  Proper  Noun. 

"Jane,  write  your  name  on  the  board."  (Pupil 
•does  so.)  "  What  have  you  written  ?" 

"  I  Lave  written  iny  name." 

"  Why  do  you  say  "my  name  ? " " 

"  Because  it  belongs  to  me." 

"  What  other  person  in  your  family  has  the  same 
name  ?" 

M  No  other  person  has  the  same  name." 

"  Class  :  why  do  you  think  a  different  name  from 
any  other  in  her  family  was  given  ?" 

"  To  tell  her  from  the  others." 

"To  how  many  of  her  family  does  the  name 
Jane  belong  ?" 

"  It  belongs  to  one." 

"  What  is  this  name  ?" 

*'  This  name  is  a  noun." 

"  What  is  a  noun  ?** 

"  A  name  is  a  noun." 

"Because  this  name  belongs  to  one  only,  what 
kind  of  a  noun  is  it?" 

"It  is  a  particular  noun." 

"  You  may  call  it  a  proper  noun.  What  is  a  proper 
aoun  ?" 

M  A  particular  name  is  a  proper  noun." 


THE  PROPER  NOUN.  125 

"  To  how  many  does  a  proper  noun  belong  ?" 

"It  belongs  to  one." 

"  Give  a  name  that  is  common  to  those  three 
things.  "  (Pointing  to  a  pile  of  books.) 

"  Book." 

"  Give  the  proper  name." 

"Monroe's  First  Reader,  Webster's  Dictionary, 
Thomson's  Arithmetic." 

"  Open  your  readers  and  find  five  proper  nouns." 
(Pupils  do  so.)  "  With  what  kind  of  letter  is  each 
begun?" 

"  With  a  capital  letter." 

"  Find  a  proper  noun  that  does  not  begin  with  a 
capital  letter."  (.Pupils  fail  to  find  one.) 

1.  Write  ten  proper  nouns  that  are  the  names  of 
men. 

3.  Write  ten  proper  nouns  that  are  the  names  ol 
women. 

8.  Write  ten  proper  nouns  that  are  the  names  of 
places. 

4.  Write  ten  proper  nouns  that  are  the  names  oi 
divisions  of  time. 


196  LANGUAGE. 


LESSON  VIII. 


The  Possessive  Form  of  Nouns. 

"  What  is  this  ?" 

"  That  is  a  hat." 

"  Whose  hat  is  it  ?  " 

"William's." 

"  Make  a  statement  of  what  you  say." 

"That  is  William's  hat,"  (Some  of  the  pupils 
•write  this  statement  on  the  board  ;  the  others  write 
it  on  their  slates.) 

•'  What  is  the  word  William's  ?  " 

"A  noun." 

"What  kind  of  a  noun?" 

"  A  proper  noun." 

"  For  what  is  it  used  in  the  sentence  ?" 

"  To  tell  whose  hat."  "  To  tell  who  owns  the  hat.n 

"  You  may  say  posesses,  instead  of  owns." 

"  To  tell  who  possesses  the  hat." 

"  Speak  the  word  as  we  commonly  hear  it.w 
(Pupils  do  so.) 

"Speak  the  word  as  it  is  here  used."  (Pupils  do 
so.) 

[This  should  be  repeated, ,  with  this  and  other 
nouns,  until  the  pupils  perceive  clearly,  and  can 
state  the  difference  between  the  sounds  of  the  two 
forms.] 


POSSESSIVE  FORMS.  127 

"Open  yo\ir  books  and  find  names  used  as  we 
have  used  the  name  William  in  this  sentence." 
(Pupils  find  many  words  and  pronounce  them.) 

"What  is  the  difierence  in  the  sounds  of  these 
words,  and  the  same  words  as  they  are  commonly 
called  ? "  (Pupils  state.) 

"  What  do  you  find  in  the  printed  word  to  repre- 
sent that  difference  ? " 

"  An  apostrophe  and  a  letter  s." 

"  As  you  look  at  the  words  William  and  William's, 
what  difference  can  you  see  ?  " 

"  One  has  more  letters  than  the  other."  "  A  differ- 
ence in  the  size  of  them."  "  A  difference  in  the  form 
of  them." 

"Because  William  is  the  way  we  commonly  use 
the  word,  what  form  may  we  call  it  ?  " 

"  The  common  form." 

"What  shall  we  call  the  other  form  ?"  (Pupils 
do  not  know.) 

"  You  may  call  this  the  possessive  form  of  the 
noun."  (Pupils  spell  the  word.) 

1.  Write  ten  common  nouns  in    the  possessive 
case. 

2.  Write  ten  proper  nouns  in  the  possessive  case, 
In  like  manner  develop  ALL  the  Parts  of  Speech,  as 

the  adjective,  pronoun,  verb,  etc.,  and  make  immed^ 
ate  application  of  t?te  terms  developed.    This  will  lef- 
the  pupils  pleasantly  into  the  Science  of  Langua,r» 
and  it  will  become  a  rational  study. 


LANGUAGE. 


LESSON  IX. 


Quoted  Words.    Quotation  Marks. 

"  What  is  an  exclaiming  sentence  ?"  (Pupils  give 
definition.) 

"  John,  give  an  exclaiming  sentence." 

"  O,  how  cold  it  is  !  " 

•'  Mary,  tell  me  what  John  said." 

"John  said,  «O,  how  cold  it  is.'" 

[Pupils  repeat,  spell  words  and  write  upon  their 
slates,  after  which  teacher  writes  upon  the  board 
without  punctuating.  Two  other  sentences  are 
obtained  and  similarly  disposed  of] 

"  Read  what  John  said." 

"  '  O,  how  cold  it  is  !' " 

"  What  are  you  doing  when  you  speak  the  words 
that  he  said  ? " 

"  Copying  his  words."     "  Repeating  his  words." 


THE  COMMA. 


LESSON  X. 


The  Comma— Its  Use  in  a  Succession  of 
Particulars. 

•'  I  want  you  to  tell  me,  by  writing  on  your  slates, 
five  things  that  this  knife  has." 

[The  pupils  at  the  age  of  those  for  whom  these 
lessons  are  intended  will,  almost  without  exception, 
write  five  sentences.] 

"This  knife  has  a  handle." 

"  This  knife  has  a  blade." 

"This  knife  has  a  back." 

"This  knife  has  a  spring." 

"  This  knife  has  rivets." 

"  How  many  sentences  have  you  written  f  " 

"Five." 

"See  how  many  times  you  have  written  the  words 
this,  knifethas,  and  a.  Can  you  not  shorten  the  work 
by  putting  all  you  have  to  say  into  one  sentence?" 
(Pupils  write.) 

"  The  knife  has  a  handle  and  blade  and  back  and 
spring  and  rivets." 

"  Listen  closely.  I  am  going  to  ask  you  another 
question.  What  is  the  use  of  the  words  handle, 
blade,  back,  spring  and  rivets?  What  did  you  dis- 
cover ?  " 


ISO  LANGUAGE. 


"  You  said  and,  only  before  the  last  word." 

14  Now,  I  think  you  can  give  the  sentence  that  you 
have  been  writing,  and  have  it  just  right.  Who  will 
try  ?  "  (Hands  are  raised.) 

"  The  knife  has  a  handle,  blade,  back,  spring  and 
rivets." 

"  That  is  right.  All  repeat."  (Pupils  repeat,  and 
write  on  their  slates.) 

"There  is  a  question  unanswered.  Who  can 
give  it  ?  "  (Hands  are  raised.) 

"  What  is  the  use  of  the  words  handle,  blade,  back, 
spring  and  rivets  ?  " 

"  Right,    Who  will  answer  it  ? " 

"To  show  what  the  knife  has." 

"  Because  they  are  all  used  for  that  purpose,  what 
rnay  we  say  about  them." 

"  They  are  used  in  the  same  way."  "  They  are 
used  alike." 

"  Now,  turn  to  your  books,  and  find  words  that 
are  used  alike,  and  see  how  they  are  written  ;  then 
we  shall  know  whether  our  work  is  right  or  not. 
What  do  you  discover  ?  " 

"  There  is  a  comma  after  each  of  the  words  except 
the  one  before  the  last."  (Pupils  correct  the  work 
on  their  slates.) 

"You  say  these  words  are  used  in  the  same  way. 
How  many  words  in  this  sentence  are  used  in  the 
game  way?" 

"Five."    "Many."    "Several." 

"  Which  now  makes  the  best  answer  to  my  ques- 
tion—five, many  or  several  ? " 


THE  COMMA.  131 


"  Several." 

"  I  think  so.  'We  have  learued  something  about 
the  use  of  the  comma,  and  I  want  you  to  tell  me 
what  it  is." 

"When  several  words  are  used  in  the  same  way, 
a  comma  is  placed  after  each  except  the  one  before 
the  last." 

[Teacher  ought  now  to  suggest  many  kinds  of 
sentences  containing  successions  or  particulars,  and 
have  them  all  written  and  carefully  criticised.  Drill 
on  this  lesson  should  continue  several  days.] 


132  LANGUAGE. 


LESSON  XI. 


I.  Directions. 

1.  The  teacher  will  select  a  familiar  theme  and  ask 
suggestive  questions. 

&   Write  the  correct  answers  on  the  board. 

Theme— Water. 

a.  Where  docs  the  water  cotne  from? 

b.  How  does  it  reach  the  clouds? 

c.  In  what  form  is  it  carried? 

d.  What  causes  it  to  fall  to  the  earth? 

e.  Is  rain  useful? 

f.  In  what  way  is  it  useful? 

Theme — A  Journey. 

a.  The  starting  point. 

b.  Time  of  departure. 

c.  Mode  of  travel. 

d.  Destination. 

e.  Appearance  of  the  country. 

f.  Kind  of  trees,  flowers,  etc. 

g.  Return. 

CAUTION. — Enlarge  upon  the  idea  of  oriticiting and 
correcting  by  the  pupils. 


PRACTICAL  EXAMPLES.  133 


LESSON  XII. 


/.  Directions. 

1.  Tell  or  read  a  short  story,  and  require  the  pupils 
to  reproduce  it. 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  a  wealthy  merchant  in  New 
York  city,  requesting  a  situation  as  salesman  in  his 
store. 

3.  Write  an  advertisement  describing  a  lost  child. 

4.  Write  a  composition  on  each  of  the  following 
proverbs,  explaining  its  meaning,  and  showing  how 
far  it  is  true: — 

a.  '  Fortune  favors  the  brave." 

b.  '  All  is  well  that  ends  well." 

c.  '  Strike  while  the  iron  is  hot." 

d.  'A  little  pot,  is  soon  hot." 

e.  \  Out  of  sight  out  of  mind." 

5.  Take  some  poem  of  several  stanzas,  and  write 
your  opinion  of  it. 

6.  Write  a  letter  to  the  "New  York  Times,"  giv- 
ing an  account  of  a  railway  accident. 

7.  Write  an  allegory  comparing  tobacco  to  a  thief. 

REMARKS. 

Perhaps  as  easy  a  method  as  any  to  induce  the 
younger  class  of  pupils  to  make  their  first  efforts  at 
composition  is  to  read  or  relate  to  them  a  short,  but 
interesting  story,  and  desire  them  to  write  an  outline 
of  it,  as  full  and  extended  as  they  can  within  a  given 
time.  In  such  an  exercise  the  thoughts  are  already 
furnished  and  the  only  labor  of  the  pupil  is,  to  place 


184  LANGUAGE. 

them  in  their  proper  connection  and  clothe  them  with 
good  language.  In  an  exercise  of  this  kind  the  pupil 
takes  one  of  his  first  lessons  in  generalization;  he 
learns  to  separate  and  classify  facts,  selecting  the 
most  important,  and  rejecting  those  of  little  conse- 
quence. A  similar  course  should  be  observed  by 
students  in  History,  writing  each  day  a  fair  outline 
of  the  subject-matter  contained  in  the  pages  of  their 
lesson. 

Theme— Abraham  Lincoln* 
I.  His  Early  Life. 

a.  Birth. 

b.  Childhood. 

c.  Youtb. 

d.  Manhood. 

e.  Difficulties. 

21.  His  After  Life. 

a.  Occupation. 

b.  Election  to  the  Presidency. 

c.  Administration. 

d.  Assassination. 

e.  Burial. 

///.  His  Character. 

a.  Simplicity. 

b.  Uprightness. 

The  Influence  of  Kind  Words. 

I.  A  Kind  Word  costs  nothing,  yet  Us  influence  may  lot 
through  a  life-time. 

a.'  Kind  words  at  home. 

b.  Kind  words  in  school. 

c.  Kind  words  to  friends. 

d.  Kind  words  to  our  inferiors. 

e.  Kind  words  to  strangers. 

f.  Kind  words  to  animals. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  KIND   WORDS."      13* 


II.  The  Influence  upon  the  Speaker. 

a.  They  gain  him  friends. 

b.  They  gain  him  a  reputation  for  amiability. 

c.  They  keep  alive  his  kindly  feelings. 

d.  They  produce  images  of  beauty  in  his  mind 

e.  They  win  for  him  love  and  gratitude. 

III.  The  Influence  upon  the  Bearer. 

a.  They  shame  him  out  of  anger. 

b.  They  comfort  him  in  grief. 

c.  They  soothe  him  in  pain. 

IV.  The  Influence  upon  Children. 
V.  Influence  upon  the  Poor. 
VI.  Influence  upon  Other  People. 

a.  The  morose. 

b.  The  misanthopic. 

c.  .The  wicked. 

d.  The  weak. 

VII.  Uses  of  Kind  Words. 
VIII.  Value  of  Kind  Words. 

IX.  Compared  with : 

a.  Angry  words. 

b.  Cold  words. 

c.  Hoi  words. 

d.  Bitter  words. 

e.  Vain  words,  idle  words,  empty  words,  profane 

words,  &c. 

X.  Conclude  by  any  instances  you  may  be  able  to 
recall,  of  the  influence  of  kind  words,  in  your  exper- 
ience ;  as,  an  anecdote  or  incident. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  in- 
fluence of  a  kind  word.  Years  after  the  speaker  baa 
forgotten  it,  or  the  occasion  upon  which  it  was 
spoken,  the  hearer  will  feel  the  result  of  the  encoar- 


136  LANGUAGE. 


agement  it  gave  him,  the  difficulty  it  smoothed  or  the 
Borrow  it  comforted.  Especially  to  the  weak,  the 
aged  or  the  erring,  should  we  offer  these  aids  in  life's 
rough  path.  Costing  nothing,  they  may  prove  pearls 
of  the  highest  price.  They  have  the  wondrous  prop- 
erty that  they  can  never  prove  harmful,  either  to  the 
speaker  or  the  hearer.  They  cannot  injure,  they  can- 
not cause  contention,  they  cannot  raise  harsh  feeling. 
Cherish,  then,  the  kind  heart,  full  of  love  for  youi 
fellow  creatures,  and  kind  words  will  spring  to  youi 
lips,  to  bless  and  comfort  all  around  you. 

Politeness. 

I.  Definition. 

Ease  and  grace  of  manner,  united  to  a  desire 
to  please  others,  and  a  careful  attention  to  their 
wants  and  wishes. 

II.  Politeness  exacts  of  us  : 

a.  Unselfishness,  in  our  care  for  the  comfort  or 

pleasure  of  others. 

b.  Elegance  of  manner,  in  our  desire  to  please 

by  our  deportment. 

c.  Deference  toward  our  superiors,  either  in  age, 

station  or  importance. 

d.  Kindness  to  our  inferiors,  either  children  or 

servants. 
HI.   Value  of  Politeness. 

a.  Jt  proceeds  from  the   impulse  of   a  kindly 

nature,  proving  a  good  heart. 

b.  It  will  admit  of  a  great  degree  of  polish,  prov- 

ing a  finished  education. 

c.  It  gives  respect  where  it  is  due,  and  thus  wins 

consideration  in  return. 

d.  It  gives  kindness  to  inferiors,  and  thus  wina 

respect  and  gratitude  from  them. 

e.  It  promotes  good  feeling  among  friends. 

f.  It  prevents  discords,  even  among  enemies. 


"POLITENESS."  13? 


I V.  Natural  Politeness. 

a.  Proceeds  from  the  heart  without  instiuclioi 

b.  Often  to  be  found  among  us  the  rough  and  JA 

cultivated  even  if  more  clumsily  expresses, 
than  among  the  educated  and  refined. 

V.  Acquired  Politeness. 

a.  The  observance  of  points  of  etiquette  ane 
good  breeding  by  the  well  educated. 

b  Mc-re  polish  of  manner,  often  covering  a  self 
ish,  hard  nature. 

VI.  Politeness  in  different  Countries. 

a.  The  etiquette  of  one  nation  often  considered 

rude  »  r  iiu-ulting  in  another. 

b.  Every  race,  even  ihe  most  savage,  has  some 

form  of  outward  politeness. 

c.  Name  any  peculiar  form  of  etiquette  you  may 

have  seen  or  read  of. 

VJT.  Politeness  in  Children  and  Young  People  is  one  of  the 
most  winning  end  graceful  of  attributes.  It  is  a  mis- 
taken idea  to  fancy  rudeness  a  token  of  manliness  or 
bravery  Bayard,  one  of  the  bravest  of  Cavaliers, 
iras  one  of  the  most  finished  gentlemen  mentioned  in 
history. 

VIII.  Perfect  Politeness  may  be  dejined  as  the  union  of 
natural  politeness  of  the  heart,  and  the  acquired  Polite- 
ness of  Etiquette  and  Custom.  Holnies  describes  the 
combination : 

"  So  gentle  blending  courtesy  and  art, 
That  wisdom's  lips  seem'd  borrowing  friendship's 
heart." 

Wisdom  is  Wealth. 

L  Wealth  may  be  defined  as 

a.  Great  possessions. 

b.  A  large  amount  of  worldly  goods. 

U.  Mere  Money  may,  it  is  true,  be  considered  as  Wealth, 
but  are  there  not  more  precious  possessions,  taoi  Idly 
goods  far  more  valuable  f 


138  LANGUAGE. 


III,  Poverty,  it  is'true,  will  impede  our  search  for  Wisdom, 
as  ice  shall  lack  : 

a.  Time  for  study,  if  obliged  to  earn  a  livelihood. 

b    The  means  of  buying  books. 

c.  The  advantages  of  good  instruction. 

IV,  But  Wisdom  once  gained  is  preferable  to  Money,  for 
these  reasons : 

a.  Once  gained  it  cannot  be  taken  from  us,  while 

money  may  be  lost  by  a  thousand  reverses. 

b.  It  can  never  be  given  to  us,  but  we  must  taste 

the  sweets  of  exertion  and  enjoy  the  reflec- 
tion that  we  have  earned  our  treasures. 

c.  We  can  never  acquire  wisdom  by  theft,  or 

inherit  it  when  dishonestly  acquired,  as  we 
might  mere  money.  , 

d.  Wisdom  is  independence.    The  man  who  has 

acquired  knowledge,  can  in  a  great  measure 
control  his  own  future.  His  opportunities 
for  earning  money  are  largely  increased  ;  his 
pleasures  lie  in  his  love  of  reading  and  study, 
and  are  therefore  always  open  to  him  ;  he  is 
respected  by  his  fellow  men  ;  he  never  feels 
the  weariness  of  the  vacant  mind,  if  reverses 
come  to  him — his  wisdom  enables  him  to 
meet  them  bravely  and  often  to  conquer 
them. 

V,  Conclusion. 

In  starting,  therefore,  in  life,  the  possession  of  wis- 
dom is  far  preferable  to  the  possession  of  mere 
money,  if  ignorance  is  the  price  of  the  latter.  A  fool 
can  never  win  honor  or  even  respect,  if  he  were  to 
possess  unbounded  riches ;  all  the  pleasures  that  can 
be  purchased  are  nothing  compared  to  the  delights  of 
a  cultivated  mind  and  a  refined  intellect. 

Seek,  therefore,  to  gain  wisdom,  that  you  may 
possess  that  true  wealth  that  can  never  be  taken  away 
from  you,  that  you  will  never  lose,  that  you  may  im- 
part freely  to  others,  and  in  so  imparting  increase 
your  own  store  rather  than  diminish  it. 


"  WISDOM  IS  WEALTH."  189 

Whose  life  most  brightly  illuminates  the  pages  of 
the  past — the  wise  man's  or  the  rich  man's  ? 

In  the  history  of  tbe  future,  aim  rather  to  figure  as 
a  Socrates  than  as  a  Crossus. 

Compare  the  life  of  the  wisest  man  you  can  re- 
member, and  that  of  the  richest  man. 

Knowledge  is  Power  ;  Wisdom  is  Wealth. 

Absent  Friends. 

7.  Introduction. 

In  this  world  of  change,  every  one  is  called  upon 
to  feel  the  pain  of  separation  from  friends  endeared 
by  association  or  acts  of  kindness.  The  dearest 
friends  are  severed  by  circumstances,  often  having 
the  ocean  between  them. 

II.  Treatise. 

a.  Affection  is  kept  warm  by  kind  remembrance. 

b.  Tender  recollection  will  dwell  upon  words 

spoken  by  the  absent,  and  the  memory  of 
their  acts  will  be  cherished  with  pleasure. 

c.  Their  return  to  us,  or  our  joining  them,  will 

be  anticipated  with  delight. 

d.  The  circumstances  under  which  separation 

took  place,  will  seriously  affect  our  thoughts. 

1.  Parting  in  anger.    Time  heals  rage. 

2.  Parting  in  affection.    Time  increases  love. 

3.  Parting  in  sorrow.  Anticipated  joy  of  meet- 

ing again. 

e.  Separation  by  death. 

1.  Memory  of  friends  becomes  then  a  holy 

and  pleasant  duty. 

2.  Faults  are  forgotten  when  the  grave  closes 

over  them. 

3.  Virtues  are   remembered   with  reverence 

•when  associated  with  death. 

4.  But  few  homes  are  without  their  unforgot 

ten  dead,  whose  memory  is  associated  with 
eome  spot  or  hour. 


140  LANGUAGE. 


f.  Compare  the  pain  of  parting  and  the  pleasure 
of  meeting. 

1.  After  a  journey. 

2.  After  years  of  separation. 

3.  Hope  of  reunion  in  another  world. 

"  The  joys  of  meeting  pay  the  pangs  of  absence; 
Else  who  could  bear  it?"  [Ro\VB. 

General  Directions. 

1.  Make  a  plan  or  outline.of  the  essay  before  writ- 

ing any  part  of  it. 

2.  Note  down  in  writing  any  useful  thought  that 

may  occur  to  you  while  you  are  collecting 
material  for  your  composition. 

F.xercise  in  Synonyms. 

1.  Custom — habit. —  (7«.sfow  respects  tbeactkn  ;  habit 

the  actor.  By  custom  we  mean  the  frequent 
repetition  of  the  same  act;  by  habit  the  effect 
which  that  repetition  produces  on  the  mind  or 
bod}'. 

2.  Pride— vanity. — Pride  makes  us  esteem  ourselves; 

vanity  makes  us  desire  the  esteem  of  others. 

3.  Enouyh — sufficient — Enough  relates  to  the  quan- 

tity which  one  wishes  to  have  of  anything; 
sufficient,  all  that  is  needed. 

4.  Remark — observe. — We  remark    in    the    way    of 

attention,  in  order  to  remember  ;  we  observeia. 
the  vay  of  examination,  in  order  to  judge. 

5.  Qualified — Competent. — Qualified,  having  the  train- 

ing, skill,  knowledge  ;  competent,  having  the 
power. 

6.  Entire— complete— perfect. — Entire,  having  all  its 

parts  ;  complete,  all  its  appendages;  perfect,  all 
essentials,  without  flaw. 

t.  Fortitude — courage. — Fortitude,  power  to  endure 
pain  ;  courage,  power  to  face  danger. 

6.  Vocation — avocation. —  Vocation  is  the  calling  or 
profession  ;  avocation,  the  temporary  employ- 
ment. 


SYNONYMS.  Ul. 


9.  Excuse — pardon — forgive. — We  excuse  slight 
offences ;  we  pardon  manifest  faults  ;  we  for- 
give  sin. 

10.  Grand — sublime. — Lovely,  pretty,  beautiful.   (We 

omit  definitions.) 

11.  Amuse — divert— enlertain. — Amuse,  to  pass  time 

lightly  and  pleasantly  away ;  Divert,  lo 
turn  one's  thoughts  to  something  of  u  livelier 
interest ;  entertain,  to  put  the  mind  into 
agreeable  contact  with  others,  as  through  con- 
versation, or  a  book. 

12  Arduous — hard— difficult. — Difficult,  anything  that 
requires  more  or  less  exertion  to  perform  it  ; 
hard,  that  which  n  qujre«  a  decidedly  greater 
effort  to  perform  it ;  arduous,  that  which  re- 
quires strenuous  and  perserviug  effort  to  per- 
form it. 

Gospel. — Derived  from  the  Saxon  adjective  God, 
meaning  good  and  spHl,  a  nanative — the  good 
narrative,  or  glad  ti'dings. 

This  can  be  made  a  very  pleasant  and  instructive  ex- 
ercise ;  the  teacher  should  explain  and  i  lustrate  the 
synonyms,  and  require  the  pupils  to  form  sentences, 
using  the  words  correctly.  It  will  teach  precision  in 
the  use  of  words ;  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  distinguish  between  the  general  meanings  and  par- 
ticular applications. 

Instruct  the  pupils  to  use  simple,  plain  terms  ;  com- 
pare the  quotations  below  and  study  the  difference  in 
the  simplicity  of  the  thought. 

"Life  is  real,  life  is  earnest ;  and  the  grave  is  not 
its  goal.  Dust  thou  art,  to  dust  returnest,  was  not 
spoken  of  the  soul." — Longfellow.  "  Life  isthe  definite 
combination  of  definite  composite  heterogeneous 
changes,  both  simultaneous  and  successive,  in  corres- 
pondence with  external  co-existences  and  sequences.'* 
— Herbert  Spencer. 


142  LANGUAGE. 


Common  Mistakes. 

1.  «'  We  have  no  corporeal  punishment  here"  said 

a  teacher..  Corporal  means  having  a  body. 
Corporeal  is  opposed  to  spiritual.  Say,  corporal 
punishment. 

2.  "  Set  down  and  rest  yourself;"  say,  sit  down. 

3.  "  Who  do  you  mean  ?"  say,  whom. 

4.  "He  IMS  got  my  slate;"  omit  #02. 

5.  "  Who  done  it  f  say,  who  did  it. 

6.  " I  intended  to  have  written  a  letter  yesterday;" 

say,  to  write. 

7.  "  The  girl  speaks  distinct-"  say,  distinctly. 

8.  "He  lives  at  New  York;"  say,  in  New  York. 

9.  "  He  made  a  great  splurge-"  say,  he  made  a  blust- 

ering effort.     The  first  savors  of  slang. 
10.  "My  brother  lays  ill  of  a  fever;"  should  be  my 
brother  lies  ill  of  a  fever. 

Vulgarism. 

The  following  words  and  expressions  should  be 
strictly  avoided  in  conversation  and  in  writing.  Only 
a  few  of  the  many  hundreds  in  use  by  uneducated 
people,  will  be  noticed. 

1.  "  Acknowledge  the  corn," — instead  of  to  admit. 

2.  "Ain't," — instead  of  is  not,  or  isn't. 

8.  "Awful," — instead  of  ugly  or  difficult. 

4.  "  Beat  out,"— instead  of  tired. 

5.  "  Dreadful," — instead  of  very. 

6.  "  Hopping  mad," — instead  of  very  angry. 

7.  "  Strapped,"— wanting  or  out  of  money. 

8.  "  Wrathy," — instead  of  angry 

9.  Female,— incorrectly  used  to  denote  a  person  of 

the  female  sex    ' '  To  speak  of  a  woman  simply 

as  a  female,  is  ridiculous." 
The  teacher  should  keep  a  record  of  all  the  mis- 
takes made  by  the  pupils,  and  encourage  them  to  do 
the  same.    Once  a  week  they  should  be  written  on 


FIXAL  SUGGESTION'S.  143 

the  board,  and  corrected  by  the  pupils  ;  the  teacher 
assisting  when  necessary. 

The  pupils  should  be  required  to  copy  in  a  note- 
book, the  exercises  in  a  form  similar  to  the  above. 

Let  the  pupils  learn  the  correct  way  of  speaking  by 
a  correct  use  of  the  term.  Arbitrary  rules  are  of  little 
use  in  the  beginning. 

REMARKS. 

The  teacher,  at  first,  will  assist  the  pupils  to  classi- 
fy subjects,  draw  outlines  and  form  correct  tabula- 
tions. Questions  may  be  used  for  a  brief  time,  to 
teach  classification  ;  but  should  be  cast  aside  as  soon 
as  possible.  The  teacher  should  always  require 
pupils  to  hand  in  an  outline  of  the  subject.  This 
plan  will  cultivate  individuality  and  originality  and 
give  the  pupils  a  training,  intellectually,  that  will 
prove  of  great  service  in  after  life. 

As  a  special  science,  language  is  abstruse  in  charac- 
ter, applying  mainly  to  reason  ;  hence  it  belongs  to 
the  advanced  course.  As  an  imitative  art,  it  applies 
mainly  to  perception,  hence  it  belongs  in  the  primary 
course.  Grammar  is  a  special  science,  and  should  be 
taught  through  the  use  of  it,  rather  than  the  use 
through  the  science. 

Closing  Remarks  on  the  Manner  01  Teaching 
Language. 

The  teacher  must  not  attempt  to  do  any  more  than 
she  can  do  well.  It  would  not  do,  for  instance,  to 
select  an  object  in  which  the  properties  to  be  illus- 
trated were  not  well  developed,  nor  an  object  with 
which  the  pupils  were  not  familiar. 


144  LANGUAGE. 


Every  lesson  should  be  given  in  such  a  way  as  to 
draw  out  the  perceptive  powers  of  the  pupil  by  lead- 
ing him  to  reflect  on  what  he  sees,  or  to  analyze  the 
object  before  him.  It  is  at  first  thought  strange — 
although  it  is  true — that  powers  are  to  be  strengthened 
only  by  teaching  ihe  pupil  to  -IHIJSK  upon  what  he 

sees. 

How  to  Con    iic    a  l,es>on. 

1  Prepare  yourself  before  hand  on  the  subject, 
fixing  in  your  mind  exaetly  wlint  subjects  you 
will  bring  up,  just  whai  definitions  and  illus- 
trations you  will  j:ive  or  draw  <mt  of  the  class. 

2.  Have  the  work  marked  and  written  down  in  the 

form  of  a  synopsis. 

3.  Use  the  board  in  all  exeiei.-e*  ;  write  on  it  tech- 

nical won's,  clasMfieaiioM  of  ilie  knowledge 
brought  out  in  the  'eeitaiion,  and  whenever 
possible,  illustrative  diawings. 

4.  Whenever  the  subject  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to 

allow  it,  the  teacher  should  bring  in  real  ob- 
jects illustrative  of  it  and  encourage  the  chil- 
dren to  do  the  same. 

5.  Do  not  burden  the  pupil  with  too  many  new 

technical  phrases  ai  a  tiui",  nor  fall  into  the 
opposite  err-  r  of  using  »niy  the  loose  common 
vocabulary  of  ordinary  life  which  lacks  scien- 
tific precision. 

Recapitulation. 

To  name  once  more  in   a  brirf    manner    (he    cardinal 
points  to  be  kept  in  mind  constantly  by  the  teaclusr. 

1.  Discuss  the  topics  thoroughly 

2.  Do  not  overburden  the  pupil's  memory. 
8.  Do  not  distrnct  his  power  of  attention. 

4.  Never  take  up  a  topic  that  you  are  unable  to  ex- 
plain and  illustrate  so  clearly  as  to  make  the 
pupil  understand  it. 

6.  Avoid  all  phases  of  the  subject  that  will  tend  to 

confuse  rather  than  enlighten. 


TOPICS  FOR  THE  SCHOOL-ROOM.  145 

6.  Draw  out  in  a  conversational  way  the  experi- 

ence and  information  which  your  scholars  al- 
ready possess  on  the  subject. 

7.  Never  omit  to  show  by  a  synopsis  on  the  board, 

what  has  been  discussed  in  the  lesson,  its  clas- 
sification and  relation. 

8.  Require  short  weekly  compositions  of  the  pupils, 

expressing  in  their  own  language  their  ideas 
on  tLe  subject. 

We  have  presented  a  few  language  lessons,  sugges- 
tive, only,  as  to  the  manner  of  teaching. 

Teachers  who  have  not  taught  language  we 
would  encourage  to  begin,  and  make  provision 
for  it  on  the  daily  programme. 

Arithmetic,  geography  and  reading  do  not  form 
the  sole  basis  of  elementary  education;  and  some  of 
the  sad  experiences  of  the  past  few  years  in  speaking 
and  writing  the  English  language,  prove  that  lan- 
guage should  have  a  VERY  PROMINENT  place  in  the 
programme. 

Topics  for  Brief  Lectures  in  the  School-Room. 

By  spending  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  each  day, 
in  a  familiar,  conversational  lecture,  upon  some 
topic  or  object,  selected  from  the  following  list, 
not  only  will  the  scholars  be  interested  and 
learn  many  new  truths  in  a  way  to  remember 
them,  but  the  teacher  himself  will  derive  great  ad- 
vantage from  his  preparation  for  such  an  exercise. 
Whenever  it  can  be  done,  the  means  of  illustration 
should  be  at  hand,  to  demonstrate  to  the  eye,  and 
thus  fasten  upon  the  mind,  the  facts  and  reasoning  of 
the  lecturer.  The  curiosity  of  the  pupils  should  be 


146 


LANGUAGE. 


excited,  and  questions  and  remarks  from  them  en- 
couraged, and  by  these  means  they  will  be  led  to 
closer  habits  of  thought  and  observation. 

1.  Glass.  17.  Cinnamon.     33.  Gold. 

2.  India-rubber.  18.  Nutmeg. 

3.  Leather.         19.  Ginger. 

4.  Sponge.          20.  Cloves. 

5.  Wool.  21.  Water. 

6.  Wax.  22.  Oil. 

7.  Whalebone.  23.  Vinegar. 


34.  Silver. 

35.  Mercury. 

36.  Lead. 

37.  Copper. 
88.  Iron. 

39.  Tin. 

40.  Lime. 

41.  Coal. 

42.  Granite. 

43.  Salt.. 

44.  Slate. 

45.  Feather. 

46.  Coral. 

47.  Gutta-percha. 

48.  A  piece  of  fur. 


8.  Bread.  24.  Butter. 

9.  Ivory.  25.  Cheese. 

10.  Chalk.  26.  Coffee. 

11.  A  pin.  27.  Tea. 

12.  A  pencil.        28.  Rice. 
18.  A  brick.         29.  Paper. 

14.  An  acorn.       30.  Cotton. 

15.  A  cork.          31.  Flax. 

16.  A  stone.         32.  Silk. 

1.  Rotundity  of  the  earth.  6.  Phases  of  the  moon. 

2.  Spheroidal  form  of  the  7.  Tides. 

earth.  8.  Eclipses. 

3.  Origin  and  use  of  salt  9.  Electricity. 

in  the  sea.  10.  Mariner's  compass. 

4.  Commerce.  11.  Circulation    of    the 

5.  The  seasons.  blood. 

Questions  for  Debate. 

Is  the  farmer  the  most  useful  member  of  society? 

Does  wealth  tend  to  exalt  the  human  character? 

Has  civilization  increased  human  happiness? 

Are  great  men  the  greatest  benefactors  of  the  world? 

Is  intemperance  a  greater  evil  than  war? 

Do  inventions  improve  the  conditions  of  the  laboring 

classes? 
Is  the  expectation  of  reward  a  greater  incentive  to 

exertion  than  the  fear  of  punishment? 
Do  savage  nations  possess  the  right  to  the  soil? 


COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS. 


14T 


Is  the  mind  of  woman  inferior  to  that  of  man? 

Is  the  pen  mightier  than  the  sword? 

Has  increased  wealth  a  favorable  influence  on  the 

morals  of  the  people? 
Did  the  Crusades  benefit  Europe? 
Was  the  invention  of  gunpowder  an  evil? 
Is  the  existence  of  political  parties  an  evil? 
Is  the  pulpit  a  better  field  for  eloquence  than  the  bar? 

Subjects  for  Compositions. 


Spring. 

Flowers. 

A  Thunder-storm. 

What  becomes  of  the 
Rain? 

Snow. 

Mountains. 

Forests. 

The  Beauties  of  Nature. 

Our  Country. 

The  Study  of  History. 

Peace. 

War. 

The  Ruins  of  Time. 

The  Fickleness  of  For- 
tune. 

A  Dream. 

A  Ray  of  Light. 

A  Drop  of  Water. 

Immutability  of  Change. 

Town  and  Country. 

Never  Give  Up. 

Benevolence. 

History  of  a  Looking- 
Glass. 

Power  of  Mind. 

The  Bible. 

The  Ruins  of  Time. 

The  Sunny  Side. 


Blessings  of  Hope. 
Flowers  of  Memory. 
The  Prairies. 
Unity  in  Diversity. 
The  Starry  Heavens. 
By- gone  Hours. 
Immortality  of  the  Soul. 
Influence  of  the  Great  and 

Good. 

Poetry  of  Nature. 
Music  of  Nature. 
Memory  of  our  Fatheas. 
Matter  and  Mind. 
The  Stuff  that  Dreams  are 

made  of. 
Spring. 
The  Seasons. 
Heat, 
Light. 

The  Spirit  of  Discovery, 
The  Art  of  Printing. 
Newspapers. 
Novelty. 
The  Sun. 
The  Rainbow. 
The  Moon. 
The  Aurora  BorealU. 
The  Stars. 
The  Earth. 


148 


LANGUAGE. 


The  Shady  Side. 

Human  Genius. 

Aim  High. 

Past  and  Present. 

Book  of  Nature. 

Hope  On,  Hope  Ever. 

Nature's  Mysteries. 

The  Contrast. 

Magic  of  Kindness. 

Cost  of  Civility. 

Things  that  Cost  Noth- 
ing. 

The  Orphan. 

The  Rolling  Stone. 

Teachers. 

Loved  Faces. 

We  Bloom  to  day,  to- 
morrow Die  ! 

The  Wreath  of  Fame. 

Reflections  of  a  Look- 
ing-glass. 

Early  Companionship. 

Music  of  the  Sea  shell. 

Letter  from  the  Town. 

Letter  from  the  Country. 

Tricks  of  Trade. 

Keepsakes. 

My  Room-mate. 

The  True  Friend. 

What  shall  we  Read  ? 

School  Associations. 

Paddle  your  own  Canoe. 

Star  of  Home. 

One  by  One. 

I've  Wandered  in  Dreams. 

Philosophy  of  a  Tear. 

Music  ot  the  Spheres. 

Oppression  the  Nursery 
of  Reform. 


The  Study  of  Geography 

The  Pleasures  of  Travel- 
ling. 

The  Applications  of  Steam, 

Rivers. 

To-morrow. 

The  Ocean. 

Manufactures. 

The  Influence  of  Woman. 

Hero-worship. 

The  True  Hero. 

Sources    of    a     Nation's 
Wealth. 

Commerce. 

Early  Rising. 

Cheerfulness. 

The  Uses  of  Biography. 

The  Backwoodsman. 

Punctuality. 

Curiosity. 

Foppery. 

Gardening. 

Modern  Delusions. 

Young  America. 

The    Multiplication    of 
Books. 

The  Philosopher's  Stone. 

Nature  and  Art. 

The  Freedom  of  the  Press. 

The  Present. 

The  Past. 

The  Future. 

Silent  Influence. 

The    Monuments   of  An- 
tiquity. 

Rome  was  not  built  in  a 
day. 

The  First  Stroke  is  Half 
the  Battle. 


REFERENCE  BOOKS.  149 

Beacon  -  lights    of    the    Make  Hay  while  the   Sun 

World.  shines. 

The  Book.  Necessity  is  the  Mother  of 

Peaceful  Conquests.  of  Invention. 

A  Picture  of  Fancy.  A   Soft  Answer  Turneth 

Leaflets  of  Memory.  away  Wrath. 

Silent  Influence^  Avoid  Extremes. 

For  the  benefit  of  the  teachers,  I  would  refer  them 
to  the  following  list  of  books  on  Language,  any  of 
which  will  be  sent  on  receipt  of  the  price  by  the 
8c7iool  Bulletin,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. : — 

Quackeubos's  Illustrated  Lessons  in  Language, 
published  by  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  CO  cts. 

Bigsby's  Language  Lessons,  published  by  Ginn 
&  Heath,  Boston,  50  cts. 

Swintou's  Language  Series,  published  by  Harper  & 
Brothers,  New  York,  §2.15. 

Graded  Lessons  in  English,  published  by  Clark  & 
Mayuard,  New  York,  50  cts. 

Had  ley's  Language  Lessons,  published  by  Scribner, 
Armstrong  &  Co.,  New  York,  50 cts. 

Zander's  Outlines  of  Composition,  published  byR. 
S.  Davis  &  Co.,  Boston,  94 cts. 

Barnard's  Oral  training,  published  by  A.  S.  Barnea 
&Co.,  New  York,  $1.00. 

Hailman's  Outlines  of  Object  Teaching,  pub- 
lished by  Ivison,  Blakeman,  Taylor  &  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.00. 

Sheldon's  Lessons  on  Objects,  published  by 
Scribner,  Armstrong  &  Co., New  York,  $1.75. 

Welch's  Object  Lessons  for  Primary  Schools,  pub- 
lished by  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.00. 

How  to  Write  a  Composition,  published  by  Dick 
&  Fitzgerald,  18  Ann  St.,  New  York,  50  cts. 

First  Lessons  in  English  Language,  published  by 
VanAntwerp,  Bragg  &  Co.,  Cincinnati,  35  cts. 


LETTER-WRITING. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


Good  letter-writing  is  one  of  the  main  springs  of 
business,  and  one  of  the  strongest  connecting  links 
of  common  life.  It  were  to  be  wished  that  more 
attention  were  paid  to  the  subject  of  letter- writing 
m  our  schools.  In  the  present  day,  when  ignorance 
is  deservedly  at  a  discount,  and  when  so  much  is  ex- 
pected of  every  one,  even  in  a  humble  position  in 
life,  there  is  no  reason  why  letters  should  furnish  so 
many  examples  of  outrageous  grammar  and  absurd 
diction. 

A  habit  of  expressing  one's  self  distinctly,  and 
ever  without  pretension,  ought  to  be  inculcated  in 
early  life. 

When  the  difficulties  of  spelling  have  once  been 
conquered,  there  will  be  little  difficulty  in  enabling 
the  pupil  to  acquire  such  simple  forms  of  letter- 
writing  as  are  necessary  to  the  ordinary  correspond- 
ence of  business. 

In  reference  to  the  more  polite  correspondence, 
we  do  not  suppose  it  can  be  of  any  great  use 
to  those  whose  personal  gifts  have  been  carefully  im- 
proved by  education,  for  "true  ease  in  writing," 
M  Pope  says,  "comes  by  art,  not  chance.'' 


INTRODUCTORY.  151 

But  to  many,  whose  opportunities  have  been  less 
brilliant,  a  few  suggestions  may  be  offered  which  may 
prevent  being  at  a  lose  how  to  begin,  or  how  to  state 
a  particular  topic,  and  which,  if  not  leading  to  the 
production  of  a  good  letter,  may  at  all  events  pre- 
vent anything  like  positive  awkwardness  or  inele- 
gance. 

Greater  attention  will  be  given  to  the  mechanical 
structure  of  a  letter  than  to  its  literary  finish. 

Those  who  wish  to  cany  the  subject  to  a  greater 
extent,  may  receive  aid  from  works  upon  Language 
&n&  Letter  Writing. 

The  chief  end  and  aim  of  this  chapter  on  Letter- 
Writing,  is  to  give  a  correct  guide  in  the  matter  of 
mechanical  detail  and  in  the  combination  of  the  parts 
of  a  letter.  It  is  hoped  that  this  subject  will  receive 
attention,  and  that  all  the  pupils  who  are  not  THOR- 
OUGHLY FAMILIAR  with  it,  may  be  taught  HOW  TO 
WRITE  A  LETTER.  It  is  of  more  importance  than  the 
thousand-and-one  facts  taught  in  Geography,  that  are 
readily  forgotten  ;  or  the  discipline  received  from  mul- 
tiplying x  +  y  by  x  4.  y. 


152  LETTER-  WRITING. 


DEAD  LETTERS. 


A  Pathetic    and    Ridiculous    Array  of    Stray 
Mai!  Matter. 

(Washington  Correspondence.) 

One  can  hardly  realize  that  there  is  a  daily  average 
of  12,000  or  15,000  dead  letters,  or  about  400,000  a 
month.  Allowing  one  person  to  a  letter,  there  are 
400,000  persons  every  month  who  undertake  to  send 
letters  either  without  stamps,  without  addresses,  or 
with  cancelled  stamps,  insufficient  postage,  illegi- 
ble or  incorrect  addresses.  Many  of  them  are 
•without  either  stamp  or  address,  and  often  with  no 
signature  which  gives  the  slightest  clue  to  persons 
sending  them.  There  are  40,000  a  month  received 
that  either  lack  postage  or  address,  or  else  have  in- 
sufficient or  cancelled  stamps,  and,  strange  as  it  may 
seem,  these  are  sometimes  the  most  valuable  letters, 
often  containing  currency  or  drafts  for  large  amounts 
of  money.  It  is  estimated  that  there  is  about  $3,000,- 
000  in  drafts  and  about  $75,000  in  cash  received  yearly 
through  dead  letters.  This  is  all  returned,  if  possi- 
ble, to  the  persons  sending  it ;  but  if  any  portion  of 
it  fails  to  find  a  claimant,  it  is  turned  over  to  the 
Post  Office  fund. 

Very  little  difficulty  is  experienced  in  restoring  the 
checks  and  drafts  to  the  rightful  owners,  but  the 


DEAD  LETTERS.  153 


money  generally  comes  in  small  sums,  and  is  usually 
gent  in  the  most  careless,  haphazard  fashion,  and  the 
loss  of  these  small  sums,  and  the  ignorance  or  care- 
lessness with  which  they  are  launched  upon  a  jour- 
ney, represent  a  deal  of  suffering  and  disappoint- 
ment. Some  hard  working  man  may  send  $20,  the 
savings  of  a  month's  labor,  to  his  wife  and  little 
ones,  whom  he  has  had  to  leave  behind  him  ;  but, 
alas,  he  is  one  of  forty  thousand  who  trust  to  Provi- 
dence, without  stamp  or  address,  or  else  his  writing 
or  orthography  are  beyond  mortal  ken,  and  so  the 
poor  wife  never  gets  the  pittance  .which  is  her  all. 

The  paradise  of  fools,  "  to  few  unknown,"  is  the 
mental  comment  as  one  sees  the  many  evidences  of 
people's  carelessness,  foolishness  and  stupidity  which 
are  displayed  at  the  Dead  Letter  -  Office  Museum. 
Arranged  in  glass  cases  on  the  four  sides  of  the  room 
are  all  these  waifs  of  travel,  displayed  with  a  view 
to  their  respective  attractions,  and  suggestive  of  th'e 
treachery  of  postage  stamps  and  the  adverse  fate 
which  sometimes  overtakes  even  mail  bags.  There 
is  everything  known  to  the  useful  and  ornamental ; 
everything  not  smaller  than  a  thimble  or  larger  than 
a  stovepipe  hat. 

Such  a  pathetic  array  of  might-have-beens,  so  elo- 
quent of  disappointments  and  blighted  hopes!  Locks 
of  hair — there  are  whole  switches  of  them — and  as 
for  photographs,  we  are  told  that  there  are  forty 
bushels  of  them  in  the  basement  of  the  building. 
But  fancy  yourself  the  recipient  of  a  nice  parcel  from 
the  hands  of  the  postman  some  morning,  which  upon 


154  LETTER-WRITING. 


being  opened  discloses  a  live  snake  !  WLether  one 
•would  go  into  raptures  or  hysterics  at  such  a  treasure 
would  be  a  matter  of  taste,  I  suppose.  But,  then, 
people  do  send  snakes  through  the  mail,  and  some- 
times they  come  back  to  the  Dead  Letter  Office  for 
want  of  a  claimant,  and  we  see  them  leading  a  se- 
.  renely  spiritual  existence  in  a  glass  jar  among  other 
stray  postal  curiosities.  It  is  a  fact  that  a  postmaster 
once  found  a  small  live  alligator  disporting  among 
the  letters  and  papers  in  a  mail  bag. 

It  is  very  amusing  to  see  the  letters  opened,  and 
guess  at  their  contents  before  they  are  brought  to 
light.  Three  out  of  five  from  a  bundle  of  unad- 
dressed  letters  contained  money,  one  of  them  a  $5 
note.  Then  there  are  such  quantities  of  dress  sam- 
ples in  letters.  One  would  imagine  that  all  woman- 
kind had  discovered  a  language  in  the  interchange  of 
these  scraps  of  dress  fabrics.  One  half  show  their 
prosperity  in  bits  of  silks  and  satins,  and  the  other 
half  in  slips  of  sixpenny  calico,  and  it  is  only  in  the 
Dead  Letter  Office  that  they  meet  on  common  ground. 
Certainly  every  fifth  letter  contains  a  photograph, 
and  I  don't  imagine  that  any  great  care  is  taken  to 
return  lost  photographs  ;  but  any  one  so  bereaved  has 
the  privilege  of  rummaging  among  the  forty  bush- 
els of  human  "counterfeits"  which  have  accumu- 
lated here. 

During  November,  1876  more  than  400,000  let- 
ters, newspapers  and  postal  cards,  were  received 
for  delivery  by  the  letter  carriers  of  New  York 
city,  of  which  20,000  were  returned  by  them  as  unde- 


DEAD  LETTERS.  15& 

lirerable  on  account  of  incorrect  and  illegible  super- 
scriptions. Four  million  and  a  half  accumulate  an- 
nually in  the  United  States. 

From  the  above  statistics,  and  the  testimony  of 
many  postmasters,  it  is  evident  that  it  is  the  impera- 
tive duty  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  Letter  Writing.  Considering  the  carelessness 
of  the  average  American  in  the  matter  of  directing 
letters,  this  fact  does  not  speak  well  for  American 
teachers. 

It  has  been  taken  for  granted,  that  pupils,  who 
could  parse  and  analyze  a  simple  sentence,  bound  the 
states  and  territories,  and  explain  an  example  in  cube 
root,  could  write  a  passable  letter  ;  but  this  is  a  mis- 
take. A  majority  of  our  pupils  are  only  able  to  do 
•what  has  been  taught  to  them,  and  that  thoroughly. 
It  is  not  enough  to  say  to  your  pupils  "that  you 
should  be  able  to  write  a  good  letter ;"  you  should 
leach  them  HOW  TO  WRITE  A  LETTER 


LETTER-WRITING. 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTER-WRITING. 


I.  Directions, — 

1.  Develop  every  part  of  the  letter. 

2.  Illustrate  and  explain  each  part  on  the  board. 
2.  Require  pupils  to  copy  the  correct  form. 

4.  Require  pupils  to  reproduce  each  part. 

5.  Carefully  examine  the  pupils'  work. 

6.  After  all  the  parts  of  the  structure  of  a  lettci 
have  been  taught  thoroughly,  and  the  pupils  have  been 
drilled  sufficiently,  require  them  to  reproduce  the  whole 
correctly. 

7.  Teach  them  how  to  place  the  superscription 
upon  the  envelope,  and  require  them  to  hand  in  a 
letter  properly  written,  folded,  inserted  and  carefully 
superscribed. 


GENERAL  ANALYSIS. 


157 


LETTER-WRITING. 

1.  Social.  - 

a.  Domestic. 
&.  Introductory,  etc. 

'I.  Private 

2.  Business 

a.  Personal. 
6.  Official. 

Classifica- 

3.  Miscellaneous. 

ftion  o/    • 

Letters. 

4.  Postal  Cards. 

.  Public,  or  Open. 
Structure  of  Letters. 


A.  Materials. 


|  a.  Size. 

1.  Paper.    -   -|  b.  Quality. 

(  c.  Color. 

2.  Ink— Color. 

3-  Envelopes.  { 
4.  Pen. 


B.  Heading. 


I.  Position  and  Arrangement. 


n.  Parts. 


1.  Place  I  2.  County  or  City.  ' 
1.3.  State. 


1.  Month. 
.2.  Date,  -j  2.  Day  of  the  Month, 

3.  Year. 
in.  Punctuation. 

'  I.  Position  and  Arrangement. 


•i;-. 


Address  J 1  •  Name  &  title 
Address,  -j  2  Dir 


,  Directions. 


C.  Introduction.  •{  II.  Parts  . 

Salutation. 
II.  Punctuation. 

1.  Business. 

2.  Social  &  Miscellaneous. 


vr  TLT«^  i 
.  vi.  M      1 


LETTER-  WRITING. 


(I.  Beginning. 
D.  Body  of  the  Letter.  •{  II.  The  Margin. 

III.  Paragraphing. 


J3.  Conclusion. 


I.  Position  and  Arrangement. 

( 1.  Complimentary  Close. 

II.  Parts.  •{  2.  Signature. 


r 

U. 


Address. 
HI.  Pnnctnation. 


F.  Folding. 


G.  Snpergcription 


I.  Position  and  Arrangement. 

(  1.  Name  and  Title. 
H.  Parts.  4  (  1.  Postoffloa 

(  2.  Directions  •<  2.  County. 


III.  Punctuation. 
.IV.  Legibility. 


County. 
'  3'  State> 


H.  Stamps.  -    - 


1.  Place. 

2.  How  pnt  on. 


HOW  TO  TEACH  IT.  159 


"  How  shall  I  teach  the  pupil  to  write  a  letter  f w 
Try  the  following  method  : — Ask  him, — 

1.  What  are  you  going  to  write  about  ?    Get  the 
real  fact  or  incident,  and  have  him  write  it  down  in 
proper  form,  as  his  subject. 

2.  What  is  ihe  first  thing  you  wish  to  tell  about  ? 
Tell  him  to  write  that  down  by  itself,  as  he  wishes 
to  tell  it.     Proceed  thus,  with  the  several  items,  2d, 
3d,  and  so  on,  till  he  thinks  of  nothing  more.    So 
far,  you  have  the  material.     Now  for  the  order. 
Ask  him, — 

3.  Which  of  these  really  ought  to  come  first  ?    If 
lie  hits  on  the  right  one,  have  him  number  it  1.    If 
he  is  wrong,  point  out  the  right  item.    Proceed  in 
the  same  way  to  find  the  proper  second  item,  and  so 
on  to  the  end.     This  settles  the  order.     Now  con- 
sider the  paragraphs.    Ask, — 

4  Which  of  these  seem  to  belong  together  in  a 
group  ?  Have  them  numbered  a  second  time,  as  Tf 
1,  2.  etc.  Show,  the  proper  method  for  spacing  the 
first  lines  of  paragraphs.  Attend  next  to  the  expres- 
sion. Ask, — 

5.  What  ungrammatical  words  or  expressions  dc 
you  find  ?    Whatever  such  he  finds,  correct  by  in- 
terlining.   Such  as  he  fails  to  find,  point  out  and 
have  corrected. 

6.  What  long  words  can  be  changed  for  short, 
simple  words,  or  those  in  better  taste  ?    Have  the 
changes  made  by  interlining.    Next,  consider  the 
capitals  and  punctuation.     Ask, — 

7.  What  words  should  begin  with  capitals  ?    Hare 
these  marked. 


160 

8.  Where  do  we  want  a  full  separation  ?  Have 
the  period  inserted.  And  so  proceed,  if  o'her  points 
are  needed. 

Now  require  a  complete  draught  to  be  made. 
When  this  is  done,  examine  and  correct  it  under  the 
pupil's  close  observation,  explain  the  corrections 
made.  Lastly,  require  a  carefully  written  copy 
according  to  the  corrections. 

Classification  of. Letters. 

The  classification  given  in  the  tabulation  should  be 
written  on  the  board  and  explained  by  the  teacher. 

The  names  of  the  classes  are  so  plainly  descriptive 
as  to  render  formal  definitions  unnecessary. 

Structure  of  Letters. 

This  means  an  arrangement  of  its  several  parts,  so 
as  to  present  a  pleasing  appearance. 

Materials.  * 

PAPER. — The  materials  for  letter  writing  should  be 
of  good  quality.  Good  materials  cost  only  a  trifle 
more  than  poor  ones.  The  paper  for  business  cor- 
respondence should  be  white  or  tinged  with  blue. 
The  size  of  the  pit  per  should  be  adapted  to  the  size 
of  the  envelope  t-  I»H  used. 

In  business  t<»  ;  •  spnndence,  it  is  not  in  good  taste 
to  use  tinted  or  colored  paper. 

INK.— Avoid  iln  use  of  all  fancy  inks,  and  use  sim- 
ple black  ;  all  ott.< •;  colors  fade. 

ENVELOPES  —  f  »o  not  use  envelopes  of  irregular  and 
fancy  shape,  and  let  them  be  adapted  in  size  and 
color,  to  the 


THE  HEADING.  16i 

SEALING-WAX. — This  is  now  principally  used  on 
valuable  letters  and  packages.  It  adds  very  much  to 
the  appearance  of  a  letter  to  seal  it  neatly  with  wax. 
Heading. 

The  heading  includes  the  place  and  date.  If  your 
letter  is  to  consist  of  one  page  only,  the  proper  posi- 
tion for  the  heading  is  on  the  first  line.  If  less  than 
one  page,  proportionally  lower ;  so  that  the  space  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page  may  be  equal  to  the  space  at 
the  top.  Begin  the  heading  a  little  to  the  left  of  the 
middle  of  the  page,  and  if  it  is  too  long  to  be  placed 
within  the  limit  of  a  half  line,  let  it  be  extended  for 
completion  to  the  next  line  below.  It  usually  occu- 
pies two  lines,  but  never  more  than  three  ;  when  two 
lines  are  used  the  second  should  begin  farther  to  the 
right  than  the  first.  Business  letters  should  always 
be  dated  at  the  top  ;  some  place  the  date  at  the  bot- 
tom ;  this  form  is  used  more  generally  in  social  cor- 
respondence. When  placed  at  the  bottom  it  must 
be  near  the  left  edge  of  the  paper,  one  line  below  the 
signature. 

PLACE. — The  Heeding  of  a  letter  should  be  self- 
explaining.  The  name  of  the  State  and  the  County 
should  always  be  expressed,  unices  the  letter  is  ad- 
dressed to  a  very  large  city,  like  New  York  or  Boa- 
ton.  If  the  letter  is  written  in  a  city,  the  street  and 
number  should  be  expressed.  The  Heading  should 
be  full  and  complete,  so  that  when  a  person  answers 
the  message,  he  may  know  where  to  send  it. 

DATE. — The  date  includes  the  month,  day  of  the 
month,  and  the  year;  if  letters  are  used  after  the 


162  LETTER-  WRITING. 


figures,  let  them  be  placed  on  a  line  with  the  figures, 
and  not  a  little  above  the  line.  The  best  letter  writers 
ouiit  the  letters  after  the  figures,  although  it  is  by  no 
means  improper  to  use  them. 

PUNCTUATION.— The  parts  of  the  Heading  should 
be  "separated  by  commas,  and  a  period  should  be 
placed  at  the  close  of  the  Heading  and  after  abbre- 
viations. The  ordinal  adjectives  1st,  5th,  27th,  are 
not  abbreviations,  and  they  should  be  followed  by  a 
comma.  The  Heading  is  an  abridged  form  of  a  sen- 
tence, composed  of  phrases,  and  phrases  are  usually 
set  off  by  commas. 

REMARKS. 

The  teacher  should  write,  or  have  written,  on  the 
board  the  correct  form  of  the  Heading  of  a  letter,  call- 
ing attention  to  the  position  and  arrangement  of  the 
parts,  capital  letters,  and  punctuation.  He  should 
require  the  pupils  to  copy  the  correct  form  on  their 
slates,  spell  the  words,  and  give  the  correct  position 
and  arrangement  of  all  the  parts. 

Various  Headings  should  be  given  by  the  teacher 
until  the  pupils  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  them. 
A  few  lessons  methodically  given,  will  SECURE  MAS- 
TERY. 

Introduction. 

Position. — The  names  of  the  persons  to  be  ad- 
dressed should  be  given  on  the  line  below  the  head- 
ing, at  the  right  and  near  the  marginal  line.  It  may 
occupy  one,  two,  or  three  lines;  the  first  line  ot  the 
address  should  contain  the  name  and  title  alone ;  it 
should  begin  even  with  all  the  lines  of  the  page,  ex- 


THE  XA.ME  AND  TITLE.  1<& 

cept  the  heading  and  those  that  commence  par- 
agraphs. 

Directions. — The  directions  should  be  as  full  in  the 
address  as  in  the  heading  ;  the  letter  should  be  self- 
explaining  ;  it  should  contain  not  only  the  name  and 
residence  of  the  writer,  but  also  the  name  andtesi- 
dence  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  written. 

The  American  form  of  correspondence  places  the 
address  before  the  salutation,  except  in  letters  of  an 
official  character  ;  then  it  is  placed  at  the  close  of  the 
letter,  at  the  left  of  the  signature  :  this  corresponds 
with  the  English  style. 

Name  and  Title. 

The  name  should  be  written  in  full ;  for  example, 
we  write  to  J.  C.  Knox,  Colorado  Springs,  Colorado; 
as  it  stands  now  it  may  mean  James  C.  Knox  or  Jen- 
nie C.  Knox.  It  is  better,  unless  the  party  is  well- 
known,  to  write  the  full  Christian  name,  and  not  the 
initials  of  the  name.  Too  much  pains  cannot  be  taken 
in  the  address  of  letters  and  the  superscription  of 
envelopes.  In  New  York  city  there  are  two  hundred 
persons  by  the  name  of  John  Smith  ;  in  order  to 
avoid  confusion  and  allay  the  passion  of  mail  carriers, 
it  would  be  better  for  aU  correspondents  to  write  the 
fuU  name,  the  proper  title  and  the  name  and  the  num- 
ber of  the  street. 

TITLE.— The  common  titles  are  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Miss 
and  Esq.  Mr.  is  an  abbreviation  of  Mister  ;  Mrs.  is 
an  abbreviation  of  Mistress,  but  pronounced  Misses, 
which  is  written  Mrs.;  Miss  is  not  considered  ac 


164  LETTEHrWRITINO. 

abbreviation,  but  a  contraction,  from  the  word  Mis* 
tress.  When  this  title  is  applied  to  two  or  more 
ladies  of  the  same  name,  both  forms  are  used  by 
grammarians,  Mis*  and  Mi**es  ;  the  hitter  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  prevailing  usage.  Esq.  is  an  abbrevia- 
tion* of  Esquire. 

SALUTATION. — Tbis  term  should  never  be  omitted; 
it  expresses  politeness,  respect  or  affection.  The  term 
employed  in  writing  to  a  man  is  /»>,  Dear  Sir,  or  My 
dear  Sir. 

The  word  Dear  implies  that  the  parties  are  ac- 
quainted ;  My  dear  Sir,  suggest  intimacy  or  friend- 
ship, 

In  addressing  'a  married  woman,  the  following 
form  ia  usual,  including  the  title  and  Christian  name 
9f  the  husband  : 

Mrs.  Dr.  J".  J.  Anderson, 

105  Madison  Avenue, 

Albany,  N.  Y. 
Madam,— 

In  the  use  of  the  salutation,  it  is  better  to  be  too 
formal  than  too  familiar. 

To  use  a  term  of  affection  when  no  endearment  ex- 
ists between  the  parties,  is  highly  improper.  It  is 
assuming  undue  familiarity,  not  warrantable  in  busi- 
ness correspondence.  Such  a  term  prefixed  to  the 
name  addressed  as,  Dear  Brown,  or  Friend  Hayes,  or 
even  Dear  Sir,  or  My  dear  Sir,  is  not  proper  in  busi- 
ness messages. 

The  salutation  used  in  addressing  a  woman  mar- 
ried or  a  single  woman,  is  Madam,  Dear  Madam,  or 
My  dear  Madam.  In  writing  to  a  young  unmarried 


DEAR  MISS  BLANK."  1«5 


lady,  it  is  custoinar}'  to  omit  the  salutation  and  ad- 
dress her  with  the  title  prefixed  to  her  surname,  as 
Miss  HoweU,  and  then  write  the  address  at  the  bottom 
of  the  letter,  at  the  left. 

J.  Willis  Westlake  says,  "  In  writing  to  a  lady  who 
is  a  stranger  or  a  mere  acquaintance,  persons  often 
feel  a  delicacy  (unnecessarily  so,  it  seems  to  us,) 
about  saying  '  Dear  Miss  Blank,'  or  '  Dear  Madain.' 
Dear  does  not  mean  any  more  in  '  Dear  Miss,'  thaa 
it  does  in  'Dear  Sir.'  Surely  no  lady  would  hesi- 
tate to  use  the  latter  form  of  address  in  writing  to  a 
gentleman  of  her  acquaintance;  and  the  gentleman 
would  be  a  fool  to  suppose  she  intended  to  make  love 
to  him  by  so  doing.  When  Miss  or  Dear  Missis  used 
in  the  introduction  it  must  be  followed  by  the  lady's 
name;  as  'Miss  Flora  May,'  'Dear  Miss  Barnes.'" 

We  should  use  the  full  form  in  the  salutation  ;  as, 
Gfentlemen,not  Oents;  Sir,  not  8r  ;  Dear,  and  not  Dr. 

PLACE  OF  THE  SALUTATIOH. — The  salutation  should 
begin  at  the  same  distance  from  the  marginal  line  as 
the  paragraphs. 

If  the  address  is  omitted  at  the  beginning  of  the 
letter,  the  salutation  should  be  placed  on  the  first  line 
below  the  heading,  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  margin, 
so  that  the  places  of  beginning  the  paragraphs  may 
be  uniform  and  correspond  to  the  salutation. 

PUNCTUATION. — Place  a  period  at  the  end  of  the 
address.  The  address  and  the  salutation  are  not  in 
the  same  grammatical  person,  the  address  being  in 
the  third  person,  and  the  salutation  in  the  second. 

Authorities  disagree  about  the  punctuation  mark 
tfter  the  salutation. 


166  LETTER-  WRITING. 


Some  place  a  colon  ;  some  a  semi-colon ;  and  others 
a  comma.  The  best  authorities  use  the  comma,  when 
the  body  of  the  letter  begins  one  line  below  the  salu- 
tation, and  a  comma  and  a  dash  when  the  body  of 
the  letter  begins  on  the  same  line  as  the  salution.  In 
the  English  form  of  letier  writing,  the  salutation, 
simply,  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  body  of  the 
letter,  and  the  address  at  the  close  of  the  letter,  a  little 
at  the  left. 

This  form  is  used  in  America  by  correspondents, 
and  it  is  believed  that  the  best  usage  sanctions  it. 

MARGIN. — Always  preserve  a  margin  in  letters,  and 
in  all  forms  of  manuscripts.  The  French  preserve 
two  margins,  one  at  the  left,  and  one  at  the  right ; 
this  adds  to  the  appearance  of  the  letter,  making  it 
correspond  to  the  printed  page;  in  America  only  the 
left  margin  is  retained.  The  introduction  to  social 
and  miscellaneous  letters,  in  form,  is  just  the  same 
as  in  business  letters. 

REMARKS. 

All  of  the  above  points  in  the  introduction  of  a  let- 
ter, should  be  neatly  written  on  the  board.  The. 
teacher  should  call  attention  to  each  part,  its  exact 
form  and  place. 

He  should  require  the  pupils  to  copy  the  correct 
form  on  their  slates  ;  and  upon  review,  require  them 
to  spell  the  words,  give  the  correct  position  and 
arrangement  of  all  the  parts,  and  punctuate  the  intro- 
duction correctly.  At  this  point  in  the  instruction 
review  the  heading  and  the  introduction. 

It  is  delightful  to  be  able  to  write  a  good  letter,  and 


PARAGRAPHING.  167 

it  is  certainly  a  great  pleasure  to  read  one.  Surely, 
in  this,  like  every  other  accomplishment,  "  practice 
makes  perfect,"  and  as  it  is  a  valuable  one,  the  pupils 
should  at  once  set  to  work  with  a  determination  to 
conquer  the  difficulties  of  writing. 

THE  BODY  OF  THE  LETTER. 

The  body  of  the  letter  is  composed  of  two  parts, 
properly ;  the  Beginning  and  the  Paragraphs.  It  is 
the  message  itself,  exclusive  of  the  heading,  introduc- 
tion and  conclusion. 

THE  BEGINNING. — When  the  address  occupies  two 
or  more  lines,  the  body  of  the  letter  should  begin  di- 
rectly after  the  salutation,  and  on  the  same  line  ; 
when  the  salutation  is  simply  used  at  the  beginning 
of  the  letter,  the  body  of  the  letter  should  begin  on 
the  next  line  below,  little  to  the  right  of  the  salutation. 

The  salutation  should  never  be  placed  so  far  to  the 
right  of  the  sheet  of  paper,  as  to  leave  room  for  only 
one  or  two  words  after  it. 

Paragraphing* 

The  same  rules  should  govern  us  in  writing,  as  in 
printing,  with  the  exception  of  the  right  margin.  The 
paragraph  should  always  be  used,  when  necessary. 
It  indicates  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject,  or  of  dif- 
ferent and  disconnected  things. 

The  first  word  of  a  paragraph  begins  farther  to  the 
right  than  the  beginning  of  the  other  lines.  The  first 
word  of  the  first  paragraph  commences  after  the  salu- 
tation ;  the  first  word  of  the  second  paragraph  should 
fall  directly  under  the  salutation,  and  so  on  with  the 


168  LETTER-  WRITING. 


remaining  paragraphs.  All  paragraphs  should  begin 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  marginal  line.  Preserve 
this  order  aud  it  will  add  to  the  mechanical  structure 
of  the  letter. 

THE  CONCLUSION. 

The  conclusion  of  a  letter  is  the  part  added  to  the 
body  of  the  letter. 

POSITION  AND  ARRANGEMENT.— It  should  be  placed 
at  the  foot  of  the  letter. 

COMPLIMENTARY  CLOSE. — This  includes  the  lan- 
guage, the  closing  compliments ;  it  should  begin  a 
little  to  the  right,  but  near  the  middle  of  the  first  line 
below  the  body  of  the  letter,  about  the  same  distance 
from  marginal  line  as  the  heading.  They  may  be 
broken  into  two  lines,  but  it  is  not  necessary. 

If  composed  of  two  lines,  the  second  should  com- 
mence a  little  to  the  right  of  the  first;  commence  the 
first  line  with  a  capital  letter,  also  the  second. 

SIGNATURE. — In  writing  the  signature,  begin  a  lit- 
tle at  the  right  of  the  complimentary  close,  on  the 
next  line  below.  A  letter  should  always  be  signed 
in  a  legible  hand,  and  this  includes  accuracy,  sym- 
metry, uniformity  and  neatness.  The  full  name 
should  be  written.  Thousands  of  letters  are  dropped 
into  the  post  offices  having  no  name  subscribed.  It 
is  well  to  write  the  address  under  the  signature  if 
you  wish  an  answer  to  your  letter;  particularly  if 
your  letter  is  mailed  at  some  other  point  aside  from 
your  regular  residence. 

PUNCTUATION. — A  comma  should  be  placed  after 
the  complimentary  close,  and  a  period  after  the 
signature. 


THE  SUPERSCRIPTION.  169 

FOLDING. — Neatly  folding  a  letter  will  add  very 
much  to  its  appearance.  This  is  a  simple  thing,  bat 
it  should  be  learned. 

NOTE-PAPER. — Fold  up  the  bottom  so  that  it  shall 
be  nearly  equal  to  the  width  of  the  envelope,  (sup- 
posing that  the  envelope  is  adapted  to  the  paper,) 
turn  down  the  top  in  the  same  manner,  and  press  the 
folds  neatly  together. 

LETTER-PAPER. — Turn  the  bottom  edge  up  so  that 
it  shall  be  nearly  equal  to  the  length  of  the  envelope; 
then  proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  above. 

This  form  may  be  observed  in  folding  for  an  ordi- 
nary envelope;  if  the  letter  is  to  be  enclosed  in  an 
official  envelope  it  must  be  folded  thus:  Turnup  the 
lower  edge  equal  to  the  width  of  the  envelope,  and 
fold  the  top  down  over  it 

SUPERSCRIPTION. 

We  have  finished  the  letter  and  are  now  ready  to 
superscribe  it.  This  superscription  is  written  on  the 
outside  of  the  envelope.  It  consist  of  the  name  and 
title,  post-office,  county  and  state. 

POSITION. — Every  item  must  be  on  a  separate  line. 
The  first  line  consisting  of  the  name  and  title,  should 
begin  below  and  at  the  left  of  the  centre;  the 
second  should  begin  a  little  farther  to  the  right ;  the 
third  a  little  farther  than  the  second,  and  so  on. 

The  spaces  between  the  lines  and  the  space  below 
the  last,  should  be  equal. 

Great  pains  should  be  taken  in  writing  the  tuper- 
taription,  and  the  fall  form  should  always  be  used. 
Bach  part  should  be  written  legibly.  .  It  is  always 


170  LETTER-  WRITING. 


the  safer  way  to  express  the  name  of  the  county  un 
less  the  letter  is  directed  to  a  large  city. 

PON CTUATION.—  Place  a  period  after  abbreviations; 
when  the  abbreviation  is  at  the  end  of  a  line,  place 
a  comma  after  each  line,  and  a  period  at  the  close. 

Stamp. 

A  stamp  should  always  be  placed  upon  the  envelope. 
It  should  be  placed  upon  the  upper  right-hand  cor- 
ner, about  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  from  the  upper  and 
the  right  edges.  Pains  should  be  taken  to  put  it  on 
carefully. 

PRACTICAL  HINTS  IN  LETTER  WHITING. 

Thus  far  in  the  discussion  of  the  subject  of  letter 
writing,  we  have  called  attention  to  the  structure  of 
the  letter,  the  mechanical  part.  Simple  as  it  may 
seem,  it  will  require  study  on  the  part  of  those 
teache;s  who  are  not  familiar  with  it.  There  are 
two  other  divisions  important  in  themselves,  the 
Rhetoric  of  Letters  and  the  Literature  of  Letters, 
which  should  be  made  a  study,  if  the  teacher  ie  not 
already  familiar  with  them. 

We  cannot  give  an  extended  discussion  of  the 
above  named  divisions,  but  will  throw  out  a  few 
practical  hints,  calling  attention  to  the  Rhetoric  and 
Literature  of  Letters. 

INTERLINEATIONS. — This  is  a  habit,  and  must  be 
overcome.  The  insertion  of  letters  or  words  exhibits 
to  the  reader  a  degree  of  carelessness,  that  is  not  ex- 
cusable. 

Copy  and  re-copy,  until  every  part  of  the  letter 


SPECIAL  HINTS.  171 


pleases  the  eye.  An  hour  or  two  devoted  to  careful 
copying  will  secure  the  result. 

BLOTS. — Never  allow  a  blot  to  be  seen  in  your  let- 
ters ;  it  is  slovenly. 

FLOURISHES. — Avoid  flourishing  in  letter  writing  ; 
it  is  indicative  of  a  kind  of  dash-and-display  charac- 
ter. A  person  of  this  stamp  would  be  quite  apt  to 
wear  an  Alaska  diamond  pin,  alligator  boots,  steel- 
pen  coat,  part  his  hair  in  the  middle  and  use  a  slim 
cane. 

CROSS-LINES. — If  it  is  necessary  to  write  more  mat- 
ter than  can  be  properly  placed  on  the  pages  of  a  let- 
ter, use  another  sheet  of  paper.  There  is  no  excuse 
for  the  person  to  write  on  the  margins  of  the  sheet 
and  over  the  body  of  the  letter.  It  is  in  very  poor 
taste,  to  say  the  least. 

UNDERLININGS. — In  reading,  certain  words  are 
emphatic,  and  when  properly  emphasized  increase 
the  intensity  of  the  thought. 

In  writing,  it  also  adds  force  to  the  expression  to 
underline  certain  words  ;  but  indiscriminate  under- 
lining ceases  to  add  effect. 

Erasures* 

Avoid  erasures  ;  it  indicates  a  lack  of  interest  and 
attention  to  the  subject.  The  same  rules  should  hold 
good  in  writing  as  in  printing. 

It  disfigures  the  letter  and  it  is  a  sign  of  careless- 
ness, and  it  is  always  the  better  way  to  REWRITE,  the 
letter,  if  there  is  time,  than  to  send  it  subject  to  the 
Briticisms  of  others. 


ITS  LETTER-  WRITING. 


Postscript. 

This  is  something  added  to  a  letter  after  it  is  prop- 
erly finished,  arid  should  generally  be  avoided. 

When  the  writer  has  received  now  information  af- 
ter the  letter  is  finished,  it  may  then  be  added.  It  is 
not  best  to  get  into  the  habit  of  appending  postscripts. 
No  topic  of  importance,  compliment  or  affection, 
should  be  expressed  in  the  postscript. 

The  Character  &. 

The  character  &  may  be  used  between  the  sui- 
aames  of  a  business  firm  or  between  the  initial  letters 
of  Christian  names ;  but  as  a  rule  it  should  not  be 
employed  to  take  the  place'of  the  word  for  which  it 
stands. 

Figures  for  Words. 

Figures  are  used  for  dates,  time  of  day,  rates,  quan- 
tities, prices,  and  in  bills,  book-keeping,  aggregate 
amounts,  etc.  In  commercial  paper  it  is  best  to  use 
both  figures  and  words. 

Lead  Pencil  Writing. 

Business  letters  are  generally  preserved,  and  as 
lead  pencil  marks  are  easily  blurred  or  erased,  it  is 
not  business-like  to  use  the  lead  pencil  in  correspond- 
ence. 

Bombast. 

Use  the  simplest  terms;  descriptive  words  and 
fine  words  are  not  used  by  educated  people  :  young 
persons  do  not  like  to  use  simple  nouns,  but  resort 
to  the  use  of  adjectives,  high  sounding  words,  pom- 
pons expression  and  parade  of  language. 


WHAT  WORDS  TO  AVOID.  173 


The  language  of  simplicity  should  characterize  all 
correspondence. 

Slang  Words. 

The  words  we  use  are  an  index  to  the  mind  and 
heart.  Your  letter  will  be  accepted  as  a  type  of  you! 
mind  and  an  index  to  your  thoughts.  No  gentleman 
or  lady  will  resort  to  the  use  of  slang  terms.  Slang 
phrases  are  utterly  inconsistent  with  true  dignity 
of  thought,  word  or  deed. 

Foreign  Words. 

It  is  not  considered  a  good  taste  to  use  foreign 
words,  unless  necessity  requires  them.  It  is  better  to 
use  pure  English. 

Tautology. 

This  is  quite  common  with  inexperienced  writers; 
when  a  fact  has  been  stated  once, — the  point  made 
distinctly  and  cleurly,  it  only  confuses  the  idea,  to 
attempt  a  repetition. 

Books  on  Letter-Writing. 

Analysis  of  Letter  Writing  ;  Ivison  Blakemaa, 
Taylor  &  Co.,  New  York.  $1.50. 

flow  to  Write  Letters,  Sower,  Potts  &  Co.,  Phila- 
delphia. $1.00. 


174  LETTER-  WRITING. 


MODELS  OF  HEADING. 


Model  1. 

**,  <3JZ~  <&,*<£ 


Model  2. 


rt&ff 


Model  3. 
X 

&gt'iS's 

f 

% 


Model  4. 


^4 


Model  5. 

Clinton  Street, 

Troy  N.  Y.,  May  11,  1877. 


MODEL  ADDRESSES.  ITS 

MODELS  OF  INTRODUCTION. 


Model  1. 


Model  2. 

r 

t 


Model  3. 


~4-wcit.  &r 

S 

^»«r-*«<*  *frtt&  -tt-imtri-,    &'£0, 


17(5  LETTER-WRITING. 


Model  4. 


<^ 

<T 


Model  5. 


iiia     fc> 


eai 

^/  X       /'          V/  t 

'M&ui  mna>  *awi .  &Ce> 


MODEL  INSTRUCTIONS.  177 


ENGLISH    INTRODUCTION. 


model   1. 

Dear  Sir,— 

Yours  was  received,  etc, 

Jfr.  James  Doe, 

25  Benton  Street, 

Albany,  N.  T. 


modal  2. 

Gentlemen, — 

Send  me  500  barrels  of  Sugar,  etc. 

Dexter  &  Jonet, 
21  Broadway, 
Albany,  N.  T. 


1 78  LETTER-  H  RITIN  G. 


CONCLUSION. 


FOR  SOCIAL    LETTERS,   the  following  forms  are 
used : 

Your  friend;  Yours  with  esteem; 
Yours  very  respectfully  ;  Yours  very 
•sincerely,  etc. 

FOR  BUSINESS  LETTERS,  the  following  forms  are 
used  : 

Truly  yours  ;  Yours  respectfully  ; 
Yours  very  truly  ;  Yours. 


FOR  OFFICIAL  LETTERS  : 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

G.  L. 


I  have  the  honor  to  be, 

Very  respectfully, 
Your  most  obedient  servant, 
H.  C.  D. 

I  am,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 
S.  H. 


Very  respectfully, 

Your  obedient  servant, 
S.  A. 


A  SISTStfti  LETTER.  179 


FORM    FOR    SOCIAL    LETTER. 


Albany,  Jan.  19,  1880. 

My  dear  Sister, 

Your  letter  makes  me  perfectly 
happy.  I  have  so  much  to  tell  you,  and 
so  Tnuch  to  hear  from  you,  too  (0  you 
sly  puss,  a  little  bird  has  told  me  all 
about  him  !)  that  I  can  hardly  wait  for 
Wednesday  and  three  o'clock.  You  will 
see  my  face  first  of  all  at  the  depot,  and 
don't- let  the  train  be  late. 

Till  then,  and  always, 

Your  loving  sister, 

Mary  Perkins. 

Miss  Lulu  Perkins, 

Granger  Place  School, 

C'anandaigw,  If.  T, 


180  LETTER- WRITING. 


BUSINESS     LETTER. 


Albany,  N.  Y.,  May  ^8,  1877. 

Supt.  O.  B.  Bruce, 

Binghamton,  N.  Y. 
Sir, — Yours  of  March  \QtJi  was  duly 
received.  It  gives  me  pleasure  to  in- 
form you  that  I  shall  be  able  to  accom- 
pany you  on  the  proposed  excursion 
next  August. 

Yours  very  respectfully, 
William  Watson, 
288  Madison  Ave. , 
Albany,  N.  T. 


MODEL  SUPEKSCRIPTIOXS.  181 


FORM    OF    SUPERSCRIPTION. 

Witter, 


ss 


Messrs.  (Smtifa  <& 

& 

2-5    x 


ARITHMETIC. 


INTRODUCTON. 

In  order  to  teach  arithmetic  successfully  the  teacher 
should  have  an  idea  of  the  subject  as  a  whole.  The 
most  difficult  part  of  the  subject— as  in  all  subjects — 
is  the  fundamental  part ;  and  unless  that  is  thoroughly 
taught,  the  after  results  will  be  unsatisfactory.  It 
must  be  admitted  that  more  time  is  given  to  the  sub- 
ject of  mathematics  in  the  schools  than  to  any  other 
study. 

It  is  an  important  study,  but  it  should  not  receive 
an  undue  proportion  of  time, — it  should  not  be  pur- 
sued at  the  expense  nor  to  the  neglect  of  other  studies 
of  equal  importance,  as  language,  reading,  spelling, 
etc. 

Nothing  is  gained  by  passing  rapidly  through  the 
primary  part.  Pupils  should  be  perfectly  familiar 
with  all  the  fundamental  operations ;  able  to  write 
numbers  with  five  and  six  periods  without  hesitation ; 
add  rapidly  and  accurately  long  columns  of  figures ; 
and  perform  all  computations  in  the  fundamental 
rules  with  dispatch.  The  first  part  of  arithmetic 
ehould  be  simple,  and  the  lesson  should  be  given 
orally  by  the  teacher.  More  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  study  of  processet  than  to  analyst*— 


TOO  MUCH  TIME  TO  ARITHMETIC.        188 

computation  comes  first,  then  calculation.  The  subject 
Bhould  be  presented  in  its  logical  order. — every  part 
held  up  separately  and  individually,  and  the  fact 
fixed  in  the  mind. 

When  the  truth  is  once  understood,  the  pupil 
should  be  trained  to  work  skilfully,  thoughtfully 
and  accurately. 

Much  reasoning  should  not  be  required  of  the 
pupils  during  the  primary  course.  The  aim  should 
be  to  make  them  see  fiow  to  do. 

But  little  attention  should  be  given  to  definitions;  if 
used  they  should  be  fully  understood  and  explained, 
otherwise  they  may  be  committed  to  memory,  and 
this  is  not  necessary  during  this  period.  The  jjupils 
Bhould  be  able  to  explain  the  processes,  but  they 
ehould  not  be  required  to  commit  the  rules  to  memory 
nor  the  principles. 

Definitions,  rules  and  principles  are  deductions, — 
do  not  burden  the  children  with  these. 

The  Science  of  Arithmetic  Receives  too  Much 
Attention. 

Definitions,  rules  and  principles  have  to  do  with 
the  science  of  arithmetic. 

Thomas  Hill,  says,  in  his  book,  "The  True  Order 
of  Studies,"  that  "  the  science  of  arithmetic  receives 
so  much  attention  that  the  art  is  neglected."  The 
primary  object  of  arithmetic  should  not  be  to  develop 
the  reasoning  power,  but  to  make  pupils  skilful  in 
computation. 

He  further  says,  that  "  A  child  should  not  be 
expected  or  required  to  reason  at  an  early  age.  Any 


184  ARITHMETIC. 


direct  training  of  the  logical  powers  before  the  age 
of  twelve  years  is  premature,  and  in  most  cases,  a 
positive  injury  to  the  pupil.  The  common  sense 
view  would  give  facts  before  reasoning.  Reasoning 
upon  facts  is  the  work  of  a  maturer  mind."  Grant- 
ing this  to  be  true,  arithmetic  is  taught  backwards 
in  many  cases  ;  beginning  with  reason  instead  of 
observation. 

For  the  reason  above  quoted  rales  and  definitions 
should  not  be  committed  to  memory  until  a  later 

period. 

First  Ideas  of  Number. 

The  teacher  should  begin  the  lessons  in  number 
with  objects,  using  pencils,  crayons,  pebbles,  books; 
also  a  numeral  frame. 

The  object  is  to  lead  the  children  to  the  percep- 
tion of  the  idea  of  numbers,  as  exemplified  in  sur- 
rounding objects. 

The  idea  to  be  gained  at  first  is  that  of  one,  as  it  is 
the  basis  of  all  arithmetical  calculations. 

The  teacher  should  hold  up  one  object  before  the 
elass ;  as  one  pencil,  one  crayon,  etc.,  until  evejy 
child  understands  what  is  meant  by  one. 

Tell  the  pupil  that  one  is  the  word  that  expresses 
"  the  how  many,"  the  number. 

After  you  have  taught  the  word  one,  then  teach 
the  character  that  represents  it. 

"  Develop  the  idea,  then  give  the  term  ;  educate 
the  eye,  then  employ  the  hand  ;  cultivate  the  use  of 
language,  then  exercise  memory." 

Pupils  should  not  count  one,  two,   three,  etc.. 


THL  UNIT.  185 

naming    the    abstract  term  ;   they  should  say  one 
pencil,  one  crayon,  one  book. 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner  to  teach  two  ;  by 
holding  up  two  objects  of  different  kinds.  After 
they  are  made  familiar  with  the  number  of  objects, 
let  marks  be  made  on  the  blackboard ;  then  the 
characters  that  represent  the  number  of  marks.  Let 
children  reproduce  at  their  seats  the  work  given  at 
the  board  by  the  teacher. 

Value  of  Numbers. 

At  this  point  see  that  the  pupils  get  the  idea  of 
the  value  of  number,  by  comparing  a  greater  group 

of  objects. 

Order  of  Numbers. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  teach  the  order  of  num- 
bers, so  that  the  children  can  tell  what  number 
comes  before  and  what  after  any  given  number.  This 
may  be  illustrated  with  the  class,  or  the  picture  of  a 
ladder. 

Teach  the  pupils  in  the  same  way  to  write  num- 
bers to  99.  Give  no  instruction  about  units  and 
tens,  etc.,  until  a  later  period. 

Teach  the  subject  so  thoroughly  that  your  suc- 
cessor will  not  be  obliged  to  instruct  in  it. 

Numeration  and  Notation. 

THE  DXIT. 

The  pupils  have  been  taught  thus  far  to  deal  with 
ones.  They  are  now  supposed  to  be  familiar  with 
numbers  to  1000.  They  may  now  be  taught  that 
there  is  another  name — unit,  which  means  a  single 


1M  ARITHMETIC. 


thing — that  may  be  used  with  the  figures,  as  one  unit, 
two  units,  etc. 

THE  TEN. 

At  this  stage  the  teacher  may  provide  several  small 
sticks,  about  the  size  of  matches.  Take  several 
sticks  and  let  the  pupils  count  ten  ;  tie  these  up  in  a 
email  bundle  and  call  it  one  ten ;  proceed  in  the  same 
manner  until  ten  bundles  have  been  made  ;  now  let 
them  count  the  bundles.  Next  let  them  see  that  one 
bundle  contains  ten  sticks,  or  ten  units,  or  ten  ;  two 
bundles,  twenty  sticks,  or  twenty  units,  or  twenty  ; 
and  so  proceed  until  you  reach  the  hundred. 

Write  numbers  on  the  board  to  correspond  to  the 
object  and  groups ;  let  them  read  the  numbers,  as 
one  ten  and  one  unit,  one  ten  and  two  units  ;  twenty, 
two  tens ;  thirty,  three  tens,  etc. 

Notation. 

When  the  pupils  can  readily  read  columns  of  units 
and  tens,  they  may  be  required  to  write  these  num- 
bers on  the  slate.  The  teacher  may  dictate  the  num- 
bers. Let  them  write  numbers  below  100,  and  ask 
them  what  they  used  to  write  the  number.  For 
example,  write  86.  How  did  you  write  it  ?  With  8 
tens  and  6  units,  etc. 

Numeration. 

They  have  been  already  taught  that  ten  units  make 
one  ten  ;  and  ten  tens  make  one  hundred.  Now  let 
them  read  the  numbers.  For  example  123  ;  three 
units,  two  tens,  one  hundred,  read  123  units.  The 
teacher,  after  sufficient  drill,  should  obtain  bundlea 
With  100  sticks. 


ORDERS  OF  UNITS.  18J 

Supplement  these  illustrations  with  dictation  exer- 
cises, and  so  proceed  until  the  pupils  are  made 
familiar  and  can  write  numbers  readily  from  dicta- 
tion on  the  slates  and  at  the  board,  and  read  their 

values. 

Orders  of  Units. 

The  pupils  must  have  a  clear  idea  that  units  may 
differ  in  size  and  value — that  one  of  anything  is  a 
unit,  whether  large  or  small.  One  bushel  is  a  unit ; 
one  dollar  is  a  unit;  one  cent  is  a  uuit.  They  have 
already  been  taught  that  numbers  are  built  up  of 
simple  "ones,"  so  far  as  100  ;  that  each  ten  is  con- 
sidered as  a  whole,  or  1  ten  ;  that  each  hundred  is 
regarded  as  a  whole,  or  1  hundred. 

Now  they  are  prepared  to  see  what  is  meant  by  a 
unit  of  the  first  order,  of  the  second  order,  of  the 
third  order,  etc. 

This  step  is  sometimes  omitted  in  teaching  number, 
It  is  a  very  important  one  ;  it  should  be  carefully 
taught  and  the  pupils  thoroughly  drilled  upon  it. 

Let  them  see  that  it  is  the  position  of  a  figure  in  a 
number  that  determines  its  value. 

Teachers  are  too  ambitious  in  advancing  pupils  in 
arithmetic. 

Some  teachers  will  promote  to  higher  classes  pupils 
that  could  not  pass  an  examination  in  notation  and 
numeration.  Frequently  we  find  pupils  ciphering  in. 
percentage,  that  fail  in  writing  and  reading  a  number 
of  four  figures.  Never  let  pupils  pass  beyond  Uie 
fundamental  rules  until  they  are  familiar  with  them,, 
and  are  able  to  readily  apply  them. 


188  ARITHMETIC. 

They  will  make  slow  progress  in  the  advanced 
steps  if  this  is  not  understood,— they  will  make 
rapid  progress  if  it  is  thoroughly  understood. 

Teach  so  thoroughly  that  your  successor  may  not 
be  obliged  to  unteach  what  has  been  taught. 

Too  much  pains  cannot  be  taken  with  notation, 
numeration  and  addition.  The  law  of  increase  and 
decrease  may  be  thoroughly  developed  with  these 
rules. 

Again  we  repeat,  "not  how  much  but  how  well." 

Adding. 

OBJECTS 

Begin  the  subject  in  the  same  way  as  the  first,  with 
objects.  Marks  upon  the  blackboard  may  be  used 
after  the  children  have  become  familiar  with  adding 
objects.  Use  the  numeral  frame  but  see  that  the 
children  do  not  confound  counting  with  adding. 

Concrete  Numbers* 

Let  pupils  add  concrete  numbers  without  having 
the  objects  before  them.  When  they  become  very 
expert  in  computation,  let  them  add  numbers  con- 
cretely from  one  to  fifty.  The  teacher  should  not 
leave  this  division  of  the  subject  until  the  children 
can  announce  the  sum  of  any  two  concrete  numbers 
that  may  be  given,  instantly.  Confine  the  problems 
to  numbers  less  thuti  ten. 

Adding  by  Figures. 

These  exercises  at  first  should  be  very  simple  : 
first,  by  adding  one  to  all  the  numbers  less  than  ten  ; 
then  two  ;  then  three,  etc. 


ADDITION.  189 


After  sufficient  drill  has  been  given,  and  the  pupils 
can  give  instantly  the  sums  of  all  numbers  less  than 
ten,  proceed  in  the  same  way  with  all  the  decades  to 
one  hundred.  This  grouping  of  (numbers  will  form 
a  pleasing  and  profitable  drill.  Do  not  let  the  pupils 
add  numbers  in  the  following  manner:  For  example, 
What  is  the  sum  of  8  apples,  7  apples  and  4  apples  ? 
7  apples  and  8  apples  are  15  apples  ;  15  apples  and  4 
apples  are  19  apples.  Rather  have  them  say  :  8 
apples,  15  apples,  19  apples.  Simply  anounce  the 
results  and  do  not  allow  them  to  count. 
Addition  Tables. 

The  teacher  should  see  that  the  tables  are  thor- 
oughly committed  to  memory  by  requiring  pupils  to 
recite  them  backward  and  forward  regularly  and  ir- 
regularly. Excite  emulation  among  the  members  of 
the  class  in  regard  to  the  mechanical  execution  of 
the  work,  because  careless  habits  formed  will  ever  be 
a  source  of  annoyance  to  both  teacher  and  pupil. 

Construct  the  addition  tables  at  first  by  the  use  of 
objects. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  pupils  be  not 
hurried  over  these  early  steps  too  rapidly.  Teach 
the  combination  of  only  one  number  at  a  lesson. 
•' Make  haste  slowly."  Teach  them  to  add  rapidly 
and  correctly. 

German  Method  of  Teaching  Rapid  Addition 
2  3 

8       2  +  4  6  9       3  +  4       7 

2  +  6  3  +  6 

40  51 

(1.)  (2.) 


190  ARITHMETIC!. 

4  5 

2  8 

9      5+3       l 

6      5  +  7       4 

3  7 
0 

(3.)  (4.) 

2  4 

9         5 

3      2+7       1  4+5 

0        4 

7  9 

(5.)  (6.) 

In  circle  No.  1  begin  with  2,  add  4,  and  write  the 
results  about  the  circle.  When  the  result  exceeds 
nine,  write  the  right  hand  figure  only.  Beginning 
with  1,  passing  to  the  right,  we  have  the  following  : 
2,  8,  10,  14,  18,  22,  26,  30,  34,  88,  43,  etc.  ;  again 
beginning  with  2,  passing  to  the  left,  we  have  the 
following  :  2,  8, 14,  20,  26,  82,  38,  44,  50,  etc. 

In  order  to  form  the  circular  tables,  take  any  num- 
ber less  than  ten  and  add  a  number  to  it,  and  con- 
tinue the  successive  additions  until  you  repeat  the 
first  figure ;  write  these  numbers  about  the  circle. 

Begin  with  the  number  1,  and  add  the  number  to 
10  ;  and  so  on  with  each  number. 


IT  IS  THE  FIRST  STEP  WHICH  COSTS.     191 

This  exercise  will  produce  great  ambition  in  the 
school,  and  all  pupils  like  to  take  part  in  it.  At 
first  call  on  the  pupils  to  recite  in  concert ;  subse- 
quently, by  individual  drill.  Time  them,  and  see 
how  many  seconds  they  will  require  to  add  100.  Only 
six  of  the  tables  are  given  ;  many  others  may  be 
made  by  the  teacher.  The  Germans  have  attained 
grand  results  through  these  circular  tables.  In  con- 
nection with  these  exercises  pupils  should  be  re- 
quired to  add  columns  of  figures  ;  at  first,  short  col- 
umns, with  figures  less  than  five  ,  gradually  increase 
until  they  become  ready  and  rapid  in  computation. 

An  experience  of  eight  years  at  institutes  has 
revealed  sad  results  in  adding  simple  columns  of 
figures.  In  many  instances  the  teachers  had  not 
been  taught  to  add  properly  in  their  youth,  and  I  have 
frequently  received  twenty-five  different  answers  to 
a  problem  like  the  following  : 

Add  8989,  7898,  7897,  and  9876. 

The  pupils  should  be  taught  the  combinations  of 
numbers  ;  combining  the  4  and  the  5  will  always 
produce  a  9  ;  a  8  and  a  5  a  1 ;  9  and  5  a  4 ;  8  and  5  a 
8  ;  7  and  5  a  2,  etc.,  and  by  a  daily  systematical  drill 
the  pupils  will  overcome  this  hesitancy,  which  is  a 
common  fault  in  American  schools.  No  rule  in 
Arithmetic  is  used  so  much  as  addition,  and  great 
care  should  be  taken  with  primary  classes. 

We  are  thus  particular  and  emphatic,  concerning 
the  early  steps  of  mathematical  education,  because 
it  is  "  the  first  step  which  costs."  Much  more  labor 
is  required  to  unlearn  than  to  learn.  The  teachers 


192  ARITHMETIC. 


for  the  younger  classes  should  possess  particular 
aptness  for  imparting  instruction.  Such  teachers 
deserve  and  should  receive  the  highest  wages. 

Analysis  of  Problems  in  Addition. 

WRITTEN  ARITHMETIC. 

After  the  pupils  have  mastered  the  fundamental 
rules,  and  their  reasoning  powers  begin  to  develop, 
the  teacher  should  require  an  analysis  of  the  prob- 
lem. 

The  mechanical  operation— the  doing  part,  should 
not  be  confounded  with  the  logical  operation — the 
thinking  part. 

Problem  in  abstract  numbers  : 

What  ia  the  sum  of  8764,9789,5786,  and  9848? 

Mechanical  Part. 

8764 
9789 
5786 
9843 

34,182 
Logical  or  Analytical  Part. 

Analysis : — I  have  written  the  numbers  so  that 
units  of  the  same  order  stand  under  each  other. 
For  convenience  I  will  begin  at  the  right  band;  adding 
the  first  order,  the  sum  is  22  units.  As  ten  units 
make  one  ten,  22  units  are  equal  to  2  tens  and  2 
units  ;  I  will  write  the  2  units  in  the  order  of  unite, 
and  add  the  two  tens  to  the  order  of  tens  ;  and  BO  pro- 


SUBTRACTION.  195 


cecd  with"  each  order,  giving  the  reasons  for  every 
step. 

Require  the  pupils  to  deduce  the  rule  from  the 
analysis. 

Analysis  of  Concrete  Problem. 

Problem  : — If  a  horse  cost  $120,  and  a  wagon  $110, 
and  a  harness  $90,  what  will  be  the  entire  expense  ? 

Anaysis; — The  entire  expense  will  be  the  sum  of 
$120,  $110,  and  $90  ;  equal  to  $320. 

The  simplest  and  the  most  concise  analysis  should 
be  taught  to  the  children.  No  unnecessary  words 
should  be  allowed  in  the  analysis  of  a  problem. 

Subtraction. 

This  subject  should  be  taught  as  addition,  begin- 
ning with  objects.  First,  by  taking  away  one  object, 
'  then  two,  etc.  After  they  have  become  familiar 
with  this  process,  then  use  marks  on  the  board,  sub- 
sequently using  concrete  numbers  without  having 
objects  before  them.  At  first  ask  the  pupils  to  answer 
in  concert,  followed  by  individual  drill. 

Subtracting   by  Figures. 

After  the  children  have  become  familiar  with  the 
preceding  processes,  the  teacher  may  write  numbers 
on  the  board  as  far  as  9,  and  require  the  children  to 
subtract  one,  then  two,  then  three,  etc.  Vary  the 
processes. 

Subtracting  by  figures  when  the  figure  in  the  sub- 
trahend is  greater  in  value  than  the  corresponding 
figure  in  the  minuend. 

Problem  :  Subtract  456  from  824. 


194  ARITHMETIC. 


Mechanical  Operation. 

824  ,„  71114 
456  or  4    5    6 


368        368. 
Logical,   or  Analytical  Operation. 

1  have  written  the  numbers  as  in  addition,  writing 
the  subtrahend  under  the  minuend. 

Begin  at  the  right  hand  to  subtract.  6  units  from 
4  units  I  cannot  take  ;  take  1  ten  from  the  2  tens  and 
it  equals  10  units  ;  10  units  and  4  units  are  14  units  ; 

6  units  from  14  units  equal  8  units;  write  underneath 
in  the  units  order. 

Five  tens  from  1  ten  I  cannot  take  ;  take  one  hun- 
dred from  8  hundred  and  it  equals  10  tens  ;  10  tens 
and  1  ten  equal  11  tens  ;  5  tens  from  11  tens  equal  6 
tens ;  write  it  underneath  in  the  tens  order.  Four 
hundred  from  7  hundred  leave  3  hundred,  etc. 

By  this  process  it  will  be  observed  that  the  form  of 
the  minuend  was  changed  without  altering  its  value. 
The  subtrahend  in  form  remained  unchanged.  The 
teacher  should  see  that  the  pupils  understand  that  8 
hundred,  2  tens  and  4  units  are  of  the  same  value  as 

7  hundred,  11  tens  and  14  units. 

This  is  a  simple  analysis  and  easily  understood. 

Second  Analysis: — I  cannot  take  6  units  from  4 
units  ;  will  add  10  units  to  4,  equal  14  units  ;  6  units 
from  14  units  equal  8  units  ;  as  I  have  added  10  units 
to  the  minuend,  in  order  to  preserve  the  equality,  I 
must  add  10  units  or  1  ten  to  the  subtrahend  ;  adding 
1  ten  to  5  tens  equal  6  tens  ;  0  tens  from  2  tens  I  can- 


MINUEND  PROBLEM.  195 


not  take  ;  1  will  add  10  tens  to  2  tens,  equal  to  12 
tens  ;  6  tens  from  12  tens  equal  6  tens  ;  as  I  have 
added  10  tens  or  1  hundred  to  the  minuend  I  must 
add  1  hundred  to  the  hundreds  in  the  subtrahend  ;  4 
hundred  and  one  hundred  are  5  hundred,  and  5  hun- 
dred from  8  hundred  leave  8  hundred.  This  is  gov- 
erned by  the  principle  which  says,  adding  equal  num- 
bers to  both  minuend  and  subtrahend  does  not  alter 
the  value  of  the  remainder. 

This  analysis  should  be  required  in  addition  to  the 
first,  but  not  preferred  to  it. 

When  there   are  Ciphers  in  the  Minuend. 

Problem  .-—Subtract  456  from  1000. 

Mechanical  Operation. 

9  9  10 

1000 

456 


544 

Analysis  : — There  are  no  units  in  the  units  order, 
no  tens  in  the  tens  order,  no  hundreds  in  the  hun- 
dreds order.  In  1000  there  are  9  hundred,  9  tens  and 
10  units.  6  units  from  10  units  equal  4  units;  5  tens 
from  9  tens  equal  4  tens  ;  4  hundred  from  9  hundred 
equal  5  hundred.  (The  form  of  the  minuend  has 
been  changed,  but  not  its  value.)  Deduce  the  rule. 

Multiplication. 

As  in  the  preceding  rules,  begin  this  subject  with 
objects,  and  build  up  all  the  tables  at  first  with 
objects. 


196  ARITHMETIC. 


Analysis  of  a  Concrete  Problem. 

Pnbkm: — What  will  40  books  cost  at  $9  apiece? 

Analysis:—  Since  one  book  cost  $9,  40  books  will 
cost  40- limes  $9,  equal  to  $360.  - 

The  teacher  should  insist  that  the  pupils  use  the 
true  multiplier  in  all  concrete  problems.  Too  much 
attention  has  evidently  been  paid  to  the  higher  parts 
of  arithmetic,  to  the  neglect  of  the  very  elements. 
The  teacher  should  see  that  the  pupils  analyze,  or  are 
able  to  analyze,  every  problem  at  this  stage. 

Arithmetic,  if  taught  logically,  is  well  calculated 
to  develop  the  mental  faculties  ;  if  taught  mechani- 
cally, as  is  often  the  case,  a  pupil  may  even  pass 
through  a  book  with  but  little  thought.  Di ill  upon 
the  multiplication  table.  Require  pupils  to  say  it 
forward^  backward  and  irregularly. 

Division* 

Commence  with  objects  ;  ask  questions  as  follows: 
What  have  I  on  my  table  ?  One  apple.  How  many 
times  can  I  take  one  apple  from  it  ?  Once.  What 
have  I  placed  on  my  table  ?  Two  pencils.  How 
many  times  can  I  take  one  pencil  from  my  table? 
Two  times.  Each  may  place  one  watch  on  his  desk. 
How  many  times  can  you  take  one  watch  from  your 
desk  ?  Once.  Place  three  drums  on  your  desk. 
How  many  times  can  you  take  three  drums  from 
your  desk  ?  Once.  How  many  times  can  you  take 
one  drum  from  the  desk  ?  Three  times,  &e.  ,, 

Place  eight  books  on  the  desk.  How  many  tituea 
can  you  take  four  books  from  the  desk  ? 


BUS TK ACTION  MADE  CLEAR.  197 

How  many  times  can  you  take  two  books  ?  Once, 
twice,  three  times,  four  times.  How  many  times  can 
you  take  one  book  ?  Once,  twice,  &c.  Place  sixteen 
birds  on  the  desk.  How  many  times  can  I  take  four 
birds  from  them  V 

Place  ten  flags  on  the  desk,  and  divide  them  into 
two  equal  parts  ;  how  many  flags  in  each  part  ? 
Place  nine  books  on  the  desk,  and  divide  them  into 
three  equal  parts  ;  how  many  in  each  part?  Take 
away  one  part,  how  many  parts  will  remain  ?  Take 
away  one  part,  how  many  books  will  remain  1 
Place  sixteen  birds  on  the  desk,  and  divide  them 
into  fonr  equal  parts  ;  how  many  birds  are  there  in 
each  part  ? 

By  the  use  of  oral  abstract  questions,  thus :  How 
many  two's  in  8  ?  In  2  ?  In  14  ?  In  10  ?  How 
many  times  can  four  be  taken  from  8  ?  From  24  ? 
From  32  ?  Twelve  is  how  many  times  2  ?  How 
many  times  4  ?  How  many  times  6?  How  many 
times  are  four  contained  in  8  ?  In  12  ?  In  20  ?  &c. 
Sixteen  contains  2  how  many  times  ?  Contains  4  T 
Contains  8  ?&c.  What  is  one-third  of  9?  Of  15  f 
Of  21  ?  Of  18?  &c. 

Primary  Arithmetic. 

With  the  long  established  methods  in  arithmetic 
it  seems  impossible  to  advance  anything  that  is  new. 

Some  teach  first  the  subject  of  addition,  then  sub- 
traction, etc.  Others  begin  with  1,  and  teach  all 
there  is  to  know  about  it  before  -passing  over  to 
another  number.  Teaching  for  instance  the  number 


198  ARITHNETW. 


I,  they  make  the  children  perform  all  the  operations 
possible  within  the  limits  of  this  number.  The 
child  has  to  seo  and  to  keep  in  mind  that — 

1  +  1=2,1x1  =  1   1-1=0,  l-r-l  =  l,  etc. 

2  +  1=3,  3  x  1=3,  2-1  =  1,  2-i-l=2,  etc. 

The  whole  circle  of  operation  up  to  2  was  ex- 
hausted before  the  child  progressed  to  the  number 
3,  which  was  to  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

Why  adhere  to  the  more  scientific  categories  of 
addition,  etc,  in  the  primary  grade,  where  they  do 
not  help  to  make  the  subject  any  clearer  to  the  child? 

The  fii-st  four  processes  are  naturally  connected,  and 
•will  appear  so  in  the  child's  mind. 

If  you  take  away  1  frojn  2,  and  1  remains,  the 
child  in  knowing  this  also  understands  implicitly 
the  opposite  process  of  adding  1  to  1  and  its  result. 

Multiplication  and  division  are,  in  the  same  way, 
nothing  but  another  way  for  adding  and  subtracting, 
so  that  we  might  say  one  operation  contains,  and 
may  be  shown  to  contain,  all  the  others. 

"You  must  teach  the  child  to  know  the  numbers 
in  some  way  or  other,"  but  "to  know  a  number 
really  means  to  know  also  its  most  simple  relations  to 
the  number  contained  therein."  Any  child  who 
knows  a  number  and  its  relation,  must  be  also  able 
to  perform  the  operations  of  addition  and  subtrac- 
tion, etc.,  with  it,  as  they  are  the  direct  result  of 
comparing  two  numbers  with  each  other. 

Only  when  the  child  can  perform  all  these  opera- 
tions, for  instance,  within  the  limits  of  2,  can  it  be 
•npposed  really  to  have  a  perfect  knowledge  of  thU 


CLEAR  CONCEPTIONS.  199 


number.  This  seems  to  be  a  rational  method  and 
worthy  of  a  trial ;  it  has  proved  superior  in  practice 
to  the  methods  in  use. 

A  full  exposition  of  it  may  be  found  in  Beebe's 
First  Steps  Among  Figures,  published  by  Davis, 
Bardeen  &  Co. ,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Pupils  .11  tist  .A  cq  11  ire  Clear  Conceptions 
of  Processes. 

Acquaintance  with  the  process  is  the  first  step 
towards  practical  skill  in  any  operation  ;  and  the 
more  intelligent  it  is,  the  sooner  is  skill  acquired. 

A  knowledge  of  the  process  must  precede  any 
attempt  to  give  theory  or  to  supply  a  rule.  Theory, 
in  fact,  implies  that  the  conceptions  it  embraces  are 
already  in  the  mind,  and  the  rule  is  universal  that  it 
springs  from  or  is  based  on  practice. 

The  process  must  be  made  clear  by  examples  from 
experience,  aided  in  every  possible  way  by  sensible 
representations,  either  objects,  marks,  or  diagrams. 
When  these  have  set  forth  the  process,  it  should  be 
made  familiar  by  well-constructed  examples  to  be 
worked  mentally. 

Facility  of  Computation. 
This,  when  a  process  is  clear  and  intelligent,  is  a 
matter  only  of  memory,  and  depends  on  practice. 
The  two  things  to  be  secured  are  accuracy  and 
rapidity.  Some  of  the  devices  by  which  this  im- 
portant habit  may  be  established,  are,  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  all  the  tables,  and  much  practice  in 
computation. 


"200  ARITHMETIC. 


Written  Analysis. 

The  teacher  should  require  the  pupils  to  bring  in 
to  the  daily  recitation  a  written  analysis  of  one  or  two 
problems.  The  mechanical  process  also  should  be 
required,  and  the  work  should  be  neatly  and  cor- 
rectly expressed.  This  work  should  be  examined 
by  the  teacher,  else  the  pupils  will  lose  interest  ia 
its  performance  and  become  careless  in  the  mechani- 
cal execution. 

EXAMINE  AND  CROSS-EXAMINE  THE  PUPILS  IN  THEIK 
WORK,  AND  SEE  IF  THEY  CAN  GIVE  A  KEASON  FOB 
EVERY  STEP. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. 

1.  We  cannot  impress  too  strongly  upon  ike 
teacher's  mind  that  each  lesson  in  arithmetic 
must  be  at  the  same  time  a  lesson  in  language. 
As  the  pupil  in  the  primary  grade  should  be 
generally  held  to  answer  in  complete  sentences 
with  clear  and  distinct  articulation,  so  especially 
in  arithmetic,  (he  teacher  should  insist  on  fluency, 
smoothness  and  neatness  of  expression,  and  lay 
tpecial  stress  upon  the  process  of  the  solution  of 
each  example.  As  long  as  the  language  for  the 
number  is  not  perfect,  the  idea  of  the  number  is 
also  defective.  An  example  is  not  done  when  the 
result  has  been  found,  but  when  it  hai>  been  solved 
in  a  proper  way.  Language  is  the  only  test  by 
which  the  teacher  can  ascertain  whether  or  not 
ihe  pupils  have  perfectly  mastered  any  step. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS.  201 

2.  Teachers    should  avoid  asking   too   many 
questions.     Such  questions,  moreover,  as  by  con- 
taining half  the   answer,  prompt   the   scholar, 
thould  be  omitted.     The    pupil  should    do    the 
talking  as  much  as  possible. 

3.  Every  process   ought  to  be  illustrated  by 
means   of    an    application    to   objects.     Finger 
lines,  or  any  other  objects,  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose, but  objects  of  some  kind  should  always  be 
presented  to  the  class. 

By  this  method  of  teaching  the  pupil  will  not 
be  able  to  pass  over  much  ground,  but  what  he 
does  know,  he  will  know  thoroughly. 

No  new  numbers  should  be  commenced  before 
the  previous  one  is  perfectly  mastered.  It  would 
be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  in  teaching  accord- 
ing to  this  plan,  memory  is  not  required  on  the 
part  of  the  child.  Memory  is  an  important 
factor  here,  as  it  is  in  all  instruction.  I  say  thit 
boldly,  though  I  know  with  some  teachers  it  has 
become  almost  a  crime  to  say  that  memory  holds 
its  place  in  education.  To  have  a  good  memory 
is,  in  their  eyes,  a  sign  of  stupidity.  Reviews 
must  frequently  and  regularly  take  place,  and, 
lastly,  propositions  must  be  thoroughly  memo- 
rized. 


202  ARITHMETIC. 


Fallacies  in  the  Analysis  of  Problems  in  (he 
Fundamental  Rules. 

Problem : — James  bad  five  cents  and  he  found  seven 
more  ;  how  many  had  he  then  ? 

Addition. 

First  Step. — James  had  five  cents  and  he  found 
seven  more  ;  how  many  had  he  then  ? 

Second  Step — He  had  as  many  as  the  sum  of  five 
cents  and  seven  cents. 

Third  Step — Five  cents  plus  seven  cents  are  twelve 
cents. 

Fourth  Step. — Therefore,  if  James  had  five  cents, 
and  he  found  seven  more,  he  then  had  twelve  cents. 

REMAKES.— In  the  above  analysis, — as  it  is  given  in 
many  schools — the  pupils  have  used  fifty-one  words. 
No  business  man  in  solving  this  problem,  would  use 
this  rigmarole  of  words.  If  the  teacher  repeats  the 
problem,  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  pupil  to  repeat  it. 
There  is  no  objection — that  is,  no  plausible  one — to 
the  pupil's  reading  the  problem  from  the  book. 

The  great  object  sought  for  in  the  study  of  arith- 
metic, is  to  develop  and  strengthen  the  reasoning  powers. 

It  is  a  positive  injury  to  require  pupils  to  commit 
to  memory  simple  arithmetical  problems,  that  are  of 
no  value  whatever  after  the  answer  is  attained. 

We  encourage  teachers  to  use  a  simple  concise 
analysis,  instead  of  requiring  pupils  to  commit  to 
memory  the  formulas  found  in  too  many  text-books. 
The  following  analysis  is  to  be  preferred,  and  it  is 
used  by  experienced  teachers  : — 


ANALYSIS.  2W 


Analysis. 

Since  James  had  five  cents,  and  found  seven  cents, 
he  had  the  sum  of  five  cents  and  seven  sents,  equal 
to  twelve  centg. 

In  this  analysis  we  have  used  twenty-three  words  ; 
in  the  first  fifty-one  words.  "Therefore,"  etc.,  at 
the  close  of  a  problem  is  an  unnecessary  repetition  of 

words. 

Subtraction. 

Analysis.', 

First  Step — A  boy  having  seven  marbles,  lost  five 
of  them  ;  how  many  had  he  left  ? 

Second  Step — He  had  as  many  left  as  the  difference 
between  seven  marbles  and  five  marbles. 

Third  Step—  Seven  marbles  minus  five  marbles  are 
two  marbles. 

Fourth,  Step — Therefore,  if  a  boy  having  seven 
marbles  lost  five  of  them,  he  had  two  left. 

Simplified  Analysis. 

Since  a  boy  having  seven  marbles  lost  five  of  them, 
he  had  left  the  difference  between  seven  marbles 
and  five  marbles,  equal  to  two  marbles. 

In  the  first  analysis  we  have  used  fifty-two  words  j 
in  the  second  twenty-five  words. 

Multiplication. 

Analysis. 

First  Siep—M  seven  dollars  a  pair,   what  will  five 
pairs  of  boots  cost  ? 
Second  Step— It  one  pair  cost  seven  dollars,  five 


204  ARITHMETIC. 


pairs  will  cost  five  times  seven  dollars  ;  (or  more 
frequently,  seven  pairs  which  are  seven  times  one 
pair.) 

Third  Step— Five  times  seven  dollars  are  thirty-five 
dollars. 

Fourth  Step — Therefore,  at  seven  dollars  a  pair, 
five  pairs  will  cost  thirty-five  dollars. 
Simplified  Analysis. 

Since  one  pair  cost  seven  dollars,  five  pairs  will 
<;ost  five  times  seven  dollars,  equal  to  thirty-five 
dollars. 

In  the  first  analysis  we  have  used  thirty-four 
•words ;  in  the  second  seventeen*  words. 

Division. 

Analysis. 

First  Step— If  &  man  laid  out  one  hundred  dollars 
for  cows,  and  paid  twenty  dollars  for  each  one  Le 
bought,  how  many  cows  did  he  buy  ? 

Second  Step — If  one  cow  cost  twenty  dollars,  he 
bought  as  many  cows  for  one  hundred  dollars  as 
twenty  is  contained  times  in  one  hundred. 

Third  Step — Twenty  is  contained  times  in  one 
hundred,  five  times. 

Fourth  Step— Therefore,  if  a  man  laid  out  one 
hundred  dollars  for  cows,  anct  paid  twenty  dollars 
for  each  one  that  he  bought,  he  bought  five  cows. 

Simplified  Analyaw. 

He  bought  as  many  cows  as  twenty  dollars  is  con* 
tained  times  in  one  hundred  dollars,  or  five  time*. 
He  bought  five  cows. 


DIVISION.  206 


Some  meet  with  difficulty  in  analyzing  problems 
in  division,  when  they  cpnsist  of  concrete  numbers. 
Division  is  finding  how  many  times  one  number  can 
be  subtracted  from  another  of  the  same  kind. 

Dollars  can  be  divided  by  dollars  and  by  nothing 
else.  Yards  can  be  divided  by  yards,  and  nothing 
else,  and  so  on  for  any  other  things  that  might  be 
mentioned.  That  dollars  can  only  be  divided  by 
dollars  arises  from  the  fact  that  division  is  but  a 
short  process  of  finding  how  many  times  one  number 
or  quantity  can  be  subtracted  from  another,  and  we 
can  subtract  only  dollars  from  dollars  ;  therefore  we 
can  divide  dollars  only  by  dollars. 

Example— Divide  $42  equally  among  6  men.  Now 
we  cannot  divide  $42  by  6  men  nor  by  6  ;  but  if  we 
give  each  man  a  dollar,  that  will  require  $6,  and  $6 
can  be  subtracted  from  -$42  seven  times.  Hence 
we  can  give  each  man  a  dollar  seven  times,  or  we 
can  give  him  $7  at  one  time. 

After  the  operation  is  performed,  we  may  call  the 
7,  seven  dollars  ;  then  the  6  will  be  a  mere  number, 
and  thus,  indirectly,  we  may  divide  $42  by  G. 

Practically,  however,  all  such  operations  are  per- 
formed abstractly,  as  42,  6,7,  taken  as  mere  num- 
bers, and  then  mere  logic  decides  upon  the  names. 

Order  of  Solving  Problems. 

1.  Require  the  pupils  to  state  the  conditions  and 
Ihe  demands  of  the  problem. 

2.  Logical  operation  or  analytical  steps. 
8.  Mechanical  operation. 

4.  Analysis. 


206 


ARITHMETIC. 


6.  Conclusion. 

6.  Deduction  of  the  rule 

7.  Definitions. 

8.  Tabulated  review. 

The  study  and  solution  of  examples  and  their  dis- 
cussion in  the  class  involve  the  following  points  : 

1.  Correct  reading. 

2.  Examination  preparatory  to  solution. 

3.  Analysis  and  solution. 

4.  Retracing  steps, 

•6  Readiness  in  solving  and  explaining  problems. 
Proper  Results  of  Arithmetical  Study. 

'1.  Correct  perception. 

2.  Repetition. 

3.  Practice. 

4.  Attention. 


1.  Mental  discipline- 


2.  Practical  busi-     ( 1.  Accuracy, 
ness  preparation.  •]  2.  Expertness. 
(  3.  Rapidity. 


8.  Preparation  for 
advanced  study. 

Cautions  to  be  Observed  in  Teaching 
Arithmetic. 

1.  Present  single  ideas,  single  facts  and  single  dif- 
ficulties. 

9.  Call  up  each  point  in  the  lesson  frequently. 
8.  Teach  simple  processes. 

4.  Keep  the  mind  in  an  active  state. 

5.  See  that  pupils  get  a  clear  perception  of  princi- 
ples. 

6.  Fix  and  hold  the  attention. 


MEXTAL  ARITHMETIC.  207 

Mental   Arithmetic. 

There  should  be  no  difference  between  the  analysis 
of  a  problem  in  mental  and  in  written  arithmetic.  The 
only  difference  between  the  two  books  is  that  the 
mental  arithmetic  contains  problems  in  which  the 
computation  may  be  performed  mentally,  without  re- 
course to  written  symbols  ;  also,  the  answers  are  not 
expressed.  It  is  a  {act  that  those  pupils  who  have 
been  trained  carefully  in  mental  arithmetic,  take  up 
the  principles  of  higher  mathematics  more  readily. 
The  language  used  should  be  sufficient  to  render  the 
solution  of  the  example  clearly  intelligible  to  a 
listener,  yet  so  brief  as  not  to  retard,  unnecessarily, 
the  process  of  mental  calculation.  The  mental 
arithmetic  should  both  precede  and  accompany  the 
written  arithmetic,  step  by  step.  In  fact  it  would  be 
much  the  better  way  to  select  a  text-book  that  con- 
tained exercises  in  both  the  mental  and  the  written 
arithmetic.  In  mental  arithmetic  the  language 
should  be  clear,  and  the  words  enunciated  distinctly. 
No  hesitancy  should  be  permitted— pupils  should 
pass  through  the  solution  rapidly.  Pupils  should  be 
required  to  construct  original  problems,  and  random 
exercises  should  be  given  by  the  teacher  in  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication  and  division,  to  teach 
rapidity  and  accuracy  in  computation . 

The  teacher  should  give  problems  of  a  practical 
nature  to  the  class. 

Written   Arithmetic. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  perfectly  barren  mathe- 
matical knowledge  in  this  country,  particularly 


208  ARITHMETIC. 


among  those  who  have  studied,  not  for  knowledge, 
but  for  a  certificate  or  a  diploma. 

Not  unfreqnently  do  we  meet  with  teachers  who 
can  demonstrate  problems  in  Algebra  and  Geometry, 
who  at  the  same  time  cannot  make  the  least  applica- 
tion of  them.  Again,  we  have  met  teachers  who 
have  graduated  at  the  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing, who  have  passed  over  the  rules  of  arithmetic — 
finished  the  study — who  would  fail  to  solve  a  prob- 
lem like  the  following: 

How  many  feet  in  a  board  12  ft.  in  length,  and  12 
inches  wide? 

They  seem  to  be  unaware  that  the  rules  of  arith- 
metic were  ever  intended  for  any  practical  use. 

Such  Knowledge  of  Doubtful  Utility. 

Knowledge,  so  confined  and  abstract,  is  of  doubt- 
ful utility,  even  as  a  mental  discipline.  Both  theory 
and  practice  should  be  united,  or  else  we  perceive 
nothing  of  the  beauties  of  mathematics.  "  Detached 
propositions  and  abstract  mathematical  principles 
give  us  no  better  idea  of  true  and  living  science  than 
detached  words  and  abstract  grammar  would  give  us 
of  poetry  and  rhetoric."  Small  acquirements  in 
mathematics  serve  only  to  make  us  timid,  cautious 
and  distrustful  of  our  own  powers— but  a  step  or 
two  further  gives  us  life,  confidence  and  power. 

Should  We  Study  .Hat lnniit  ics  for  the 
Discipline  of  the  Mind  ? 

The  mere  study  of  the  mathematics  will  give  but 
little  discipline.  The  object,  and  the  only  object, 


FOR  DISCIPLINE,  OR  FOX  USE?  209 

should  be  to  understand  the  subject  studied,  and  if 
that  understanding  is  attained,  the  highest  mental 
discipline  that  the  subject  can  yield  will  surely  be 
attained. 

Those  who  study  for  an  object  so  indirect  and 
indefinite  can  never  be  decidedly  successful.  And 
those  who  teach  with  no  other  view  than  giving 
discipline  to  the  minds  of  their  pupils,  never  more 
than  half  teach. 

Let  a  person  undertake  the  study  of  any  science 
with  no  other  object  than  the  discipline  of  the  mind, 
the  science  will  come  to  him  with  the  utmost  diffi- 
culty. But  let  him  commence  the  study  with  the 
determination  to  understand  it,  and  the  science  will 
come  to  him  with  ease,  and  with  it  will  come  a 
discipline  of  mind,  the  most  pure  and  lasting  that 

man  can  attain.' 

Objects  Sought. 

The  "objects  sought  in  arithmetical  study  should 
be  two-fold, — to  give  practical  skill,  including  clear 
insight  into  processes,  facility  in  computation,  and 
readiness  in  dealing  with  practical  problems;  and 
to  make  it  an  exercise  in  exact  thinking.  The 
former  is  considered  the  primary  object,  because 
demanded  by  the  requirements  of  the  pupil,  who  is 
at  school  to  be  fitted  for  business  ;  but  the  latter  as 
securing  a  higher  discipline  of  the  mind,  and  as 
giving  a  clearer  insight  into  the  nature  of  the  work, 
is  of  almost  equal  value.  In  pursuit  of  the  former 
object,  the  teacher  will  succeed  the  best  who  tries  to 
make  the  whole  course  of  instruction  and  practice 
disciplinary. 


210  ARITHMETIC. 


Logical  and  Mechanical  Steps. 

In  the  application  of  arithmetic  there  are  two  dis- 
tinct operations,  the  logical  one  and  the  mechanical 
one. 

In  too  many  schools  greater  attention  is  given  to 
the  mechanical ;  to  some  extent  this  is  quite  neces- 
eary,  and  pupils  should  be  made  very  familiar  with 
elementary  processes.  But  after  they  become  expert 
in  computation,  greater  attention  should  be  given  to 
calculation, — the  thinking.  The  undisciplined  direct 
their  attention  more  to  the  doing  than  the  thinking, 
when  it  should  be  the  reverse  ;  and  nearly  all  the 
efforts  of  the  good  teacher  are  directed  to  make  his 
pupils  reason  correctly.  If  a  person  fails  in  an  arith- 
metical problem,  the  failure  is  always  in  the  logic,  for 
false  logic  directs  to  false  reasoning,  and  true  logic 
points  out  true  operations. 

The  study  of  mathematics  is  a  beautiful  one,  and 
if  taught  properly  it  accustoms  the  mind  to  habits  of 
Investigation ;  if  the  knowledge  is  digested  and 
assimilated,  it  tends  to  produce  an  exact  mind. 

Pupils  should  be  able  to  explain  the  processes,  but 
they  should  not  be  required  to  commit  to  memory 
the  rules  or  principles. 

Questions  as  to  Intellectual  Arithmetic* 

Is  it  absolutely  established  by  fact  and  theory  that 
no  harm  results  from  requiring  pupils  to  repeat  ver- 
batim the  examples  in  intellectual  arithmetic, — said 
examples  having  been  first  enunciated  by  the  teacher, 
the  pupils  having  no  books  ? 


SHOULD  PROBLEMS  BE  LEARNED*       211 

It  is  suggested  from  the  following  considerations, 
whether  harm  does  not  result : 

First — Does  not  the  requirement  cultivate  spa» 
modic  or  momentary  effort  to  retain  the  words,  and 
thus  lead  practically  to  the  habit  of  forgetting  them, 
thus  developing  a  most  pernicious  habit  of  forget- 
ting other  facts  that  are  important  to  remember  ? 

Second — Does  not  the  requirement  so  tax  the  recol- 
lecting powers  of  the  pupil  that  his  reasoning  powers 
must  necessarily  be  less  active,  and  hence  less  devel- 
oped? 

Third— Is  not  the  great  object  sought  for  in  the 
study  of  mathematics,  to  develop  and  strengthen  the 
reasoning  powers  ? 

Fourth — Is  not  that  one  best  disciplined  mentally 
who  is  able  to  attend  to  and  follow  his  own  mental 
powers  or  operations  in  his  process  of  reasoning? 

Fifth— Does  the  requirement  to  memorize  tend  to 
strengthen  or  develop  the  habit  of  analytical  reason- 
ing? 

Sixth — Is  it  not  a  positive  injury  to  require  pupils 
to  commit  to  memory  simple  arithmetical  problems 
that  are  of  no  value  after  the  answer  is  obtained  r 

SeventJi — Cannot  a  verbal  memory  be  far  better 
cultivated  by  requiring  pupils  to  commit  facts,  words 
it  may  be,  that  are  absolutely  necessary  to  a  correct 
scholarship? 

Fractions. 

The  term  UNITY  in  mathematical  science  is  applied 
to  any  number  or  quantity  regarded  as  a  whole  ;  the 
term  UNIT  in  arithmetic,  to  any  number  that  is  used 
as  the  base  of  a  collection 


ARITHMETIC. 


""  Every  number,   either  integral  or  fractional,  has 
the  unit  1  for  a  primary  base. 

—  A  quantity  regarded  as  a  whole",  called  a  unit,  is 
the  primary  base  of  every  fraction. 

One  of  the  equal  parts  of  a  unit  called  the  frac- 
tional unit,  is  the  secondary  base  of  every  fractional 
number. 

The  value  of  a  fraction  is  the  number  of  times  it 
contains  the  unit  1. 

*»  The  quantity  or  unit  that  is  divided  into  equal 
parts,  is  the  UNIT  of  the  fraction. 

One  of  the  equal  parts  is  called    a  FRACTIONAL' 
UNIT. 

*•    In  |  of  a  pound,  1  pound  is  the  UNIT  of  the  frac- 
tion, and  i  of  a  pound  the  FRACTIONAL  UNIT. 

A  Fractional  unit  or  a  collection  of  fractional  units 
is  a  FRACTION.  (Or  it  may  be  considered  one  or  more 
of  the  equal  parts  of  a  unit,  these  parts  corresponding 
to  fractional  units.) 

Two  integers  are  required  to  express  a  fraction 
one  above  a  short  horizontal  line  to  denote  the  num- 
ber of  fractional  units,  called  the  NUMERATOR  ;  it 
numbers,  or  expresses,  how  many  are  taken.  The 
other,  below  the  line,  expresses  how  many  frac- 
tional units  it  is  divided  into,  and  is  called  the  DE- 
NOMINATOR ;  it  denominates  or  names  and  expresses 
how  many  fractional  units  are  equal  io  a  unit. 

The  numerator  and  denominator  taken  together 
are  called  TERMS  OF  THE  FRACTION. 

Fractions  are  of  three  kinds,  COMMON,  DECIMAL, 
tnd  DUODECIMAL.  One  or  more  of  the  equal  parts 


FEACTIONS. 


of  a  quantity,  expressed  by  two  numbers,  one 
written  above  the  other  with  a  line  between  them,  is 
a  COMMON  FRACTION— 2,^  and  J. 

Its  denominator  is  other  than  ten,  or  some  power 
•f ten. 

A  fractional  number,  whose  value  is  less  than  a 
unit,  is  a  PROPER  FRACTION,  as  |,J. 

REMARKS. — A  proper  fraction  is  so  termed  because 
it  expresses  a  value  less  than  1.  An  improper  frac- 
tion is  not  properly  a  fraction  of  a  unit,  the  value 
expressed  being  equal  to  or  greater  than  1. 

A  single  fraction,  either  proper  or  improper,  is  a 

SIMPLE  FRACTION,  J}  £% 

A  fraction  of  a  fraction,  or  several  fractions  joined 
by  of,  is  termed  a  COMPOUND  FRACTION,  as  2-3  of  6-8 
of  3-12. 

A  fraction  in  the  numerator,  or  denominator,  or 

both,  is  termed  a  COMPLEX  FRACTION,  as  -7  -f 

\  « 

Dividing  unity  by  any  number  is  termed  a  RECIP- 
ROCAL; thus  the  reciprocal  of  4  is  J. 

An  integral  number  added  to  a  fractional  number 
is  termed  a  MIXED  NUMBER,  as  3  -f  J,  7-f-  5. 

REMARK. — The  sign  of  addition  is  usually  omitted. 

General  Principles . 

1.  Multiplying  the  numerator  increases  the  value 
of  the  fraction. 

2.  Multiplying  the  denominator  decreases  the  value 
of  the  fraction. 

8.  Multiplying  both  numerator  and  denominator 


214  ARITHMETIC. 


by  the  same  number  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the 
fraction.  " 

4.  Dividing  the  numerator  decreases  the  value  of 
the  fraction. 

5.  Dividing  the  denominator  increases  the  value  of 
the  fraction. 

6.  Dividing  both  numerator  and  denominator  by 
the  same  number  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the  frac- 
tion. 

Demonstrations  of  the  Principles. 

1.  Because  it  increases  the  number  of  fractional 
units  while  the  value  of  the  fractional  unit  remains 
the  same. 

2.  Because  it  diminishes  the  value  of  the  fractional 
unit,  while  the  number  remains  the  same;  it  dimin- 
ishes the  value  of  the  fractional  unit  because  the  unit 
of  the  fraction  is  divided  into  a  greater  number  of 
fractional  units,  and  each  fractional  unit  is  as  many 
times  less  in  value  as  there  are  units  in  the  multiplier. 

3.  Because  it  increases  the  number  of  fractional 
units  as  many  times  as  it  decreases  the  value  of  the 
fractional  unit;  that  is  in  the  same  ratio. 

4.  Because  it  diminishes  the  number  of  fractional 
units,  while  the  value  of  the  fractional  unit  remains 
the  same. 

5.  Because  it  increases  the  value  of  the  fractional 
unit,  while  the  number  remains  the  same;  it  increases 
the  value  of  the  fractional  unit  because  the  unit  of 
the  fraction  is  divided  into  a  less  number  of  fractional 
units,  each  fractional  unit  being   as  many  times 
greater  in  value  as  there  are  units  in  the  divisor. 


FRACTIONS.  216 


6.  Because  it  diminishes  the  number  of  fractiona. 
units  as  many  times  as  it  increases  the  value  of  the 
fractional  unit. 

Principles. 

1.  If  the  numerator  be  multiplied  by  any  number, 
the  number  of  fractional  units  will  be  increased  as 
many  times  as  there  are  units  in  the  multiplier. 

2.  If  the  numerator  be  divided  by  any  number, 
the  number  of  fractional  units  will  be  diminished  as 
many  times  as  there  are  units  in  the  divisor. 

3.  If  the  denominator  be  multiplied  by  any  num- 
ber, the  fractional  units  will  be  diminished  as  many 
times  as  there  are  units  in  the  multiplier. 

4  If  the  denominator  be  divided  by  any  number, 
the  value  of  the  fractional  units  will  be  increased  M 
many  times  as  there  are  units  in  the  divisor. 


216  ARITHMETIC. 


Analysis  of  a  Fraction. 

Naming  the  quantity  or  unit  divided,  the  value  of 
one  of  its  fractional  units,  the  number  of  fractional 
units,  the  denominator,  numeratoi  and  the  terms  of 
the  fraction,  is  to  analyze  a  fraction. 

Thus:  Analyze  the  fraction  -i 
Analysis. 

~  is  a  fraction  because  it  expresses  4  of  the  equal 
parts  of  a  unit.  1  is  the  unit  of  the  fraction,  or  the 
unit  that  is  divided  to  form  the  fraction,  i  is  the 
fractional  unit,  or  one  of  the  equal  parts  of  the  unit 
divided.  5  is  the  denominator,  it  names  the  parts; 
it  shows  that  the  unit  is  divided  into  5  equal  pa-rts; 
it  tells  the  size  or  value  of  each  part.  4  is  the  nume- 
rator; it  numbers  the  parts  taken  to  form  the  frac- 
tion; it  is  written  above  the  line.  4  and  5  are  the 
terms  of  the  fraction,  and  its  value  is  4  f  5. 
To  Reduce  Fractions  to  their  Lowest  Ttrma. 
Problem  and  Operation. 

Reduce  ^  to  its  lowest  terms. 

H 

Operation. 


20-  r4      s 
Analym 

Dividing  —  by  r-  =  -|-  ;  as  the  numerator  and  de- 
nominator are  prime  to  each  other,  the  fraction  Li 
reduced  to  ils  lowest  terms.  This  depends  upon  th« 
following  principle:  Dividing  both  terms  of  the  frac- 
tion by  the  same  number  does  not  alter  the  value  of 
the  fraction,  because  the  number  of  fractional  uniti 


REDUCTION  OF  FRACTIONS.  211 

is  decreased  as  many  times  as  the  value  of  the  frac- 
tional unit  is  increased.     (Deduce  the  rule.) 
To  Reduce  an  Improper  Fraction  to  an  Integer 
or  a  Mixed  Number. 

Problem  and  Operation. 

125 

Reduce  -g-  to  an  integral  number. 

~          ..         135-:-5 — ,..         ,«125       25      O(- 

Operation:  -$—.-5— 25,  or  5)  — ==^=25. 
Analysis. 

In  1  there  are  5  fifths;  in  125  fifths,  as  many  onea 
as  5  is  contained  in  125,  or  25.  This  depends  upon  the 
following  principle:  Dividing  both  terms  of  the 
fraction  by  the  same  number  does  not  alter  the  value 
of  the  fraction;  the  same  reason  as  when  we  reduce 
fractions  to  their  lowest  terms.  (Deduce  the  rule.) 

To  Reduce  an  Integer  or  Mixed  Number  to  an 
Improper  Fraction. 

Problem  and  Operation. 
Reduce  49?  to  fifths. 

0 

Operation :  4  X  49=^- 

JHS      2  _  247. 
5  +5  5 

Analysis. 

In  1  there  are  5  fifths ;  in  49  ones,  49  times  5  fifths, 
or  245  fifths:  plus  2  fifths  equals  247  fifths.  This  de- 
pends upon  the  following  principle:  Multiplying  both 
terms  of  the  fraction  by  the  same  number  does  not 
alter  the  value  of  the  fraction,  because  the  number 
of  fractional  units  is  increased  as  many  times  as  the 
value  of  the  fractional  unit  is  decreased.  (Deduca 
the  rule.) 


218  ARITHMETIC. 


To  Reduce  Fractions  to  a    Common  Denomi* 
bat  or. 

Problem  and  Operation. 
Reduce  $.  %_  4.  «. 

5684 

3X84  _   78 

"5X24  ~~  120 


6X20  "~  130 
JX15_60 
8X15  ~~  120 

15x25  _  375 
4X25  ~  120 

Analysis. 

The  least  common  multiple  of  the  denominators  is 
120  ;  dividing  the  least  common  multiple  by  the  de- 
nominator of  the  first  fraction,  we  have  the  quotient 
24;  multiplying  both  terms  of  the  fraction  by  24,  we 
have  72  120ths:  This  depends  upon  the  following 
ing  principle  :  multiplying  both  terms  of  the  fraction 
by  the  same  number,  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the 
fraction,  because  it  increases  the  number  of  fractional 
units  as  many  times  as  it  decreases  the  value  of  the 
fractional  unit.  (The  same  analysis  for  the  remain- 
ing fractions.) 

Addition  of  Fractions* 

Problem  and  Operation. 


Operation :  j?  ,  1  _  _? _  i  1. 
4"1"  4~~  4         4 


SUBTRACTION 'OF  FRACTIONS.  21» 

Analysis. 
As  the  fractions  have  the  same  fractional  unit,  we 

may  add  the  numerators  ;  _  plus  -—-—I  -• 
4  444 

Add  5_  and  J>- 

8  7 

Analysis. 

As  the  fractions  5_  and  j>  have  different  fractional 

8          7 
unite,  first  reduce  them  to  fractions  having  the  same 

fractional   unit.    5   is  equal  to  55;  1  is  equal  to  48 . 

8"  56      7  56 

now  as  the  fractions  are  of  the  9ume  fractional  unit 
value,  we  may  add  the  numerators  ;  §5  .43 — 83  ,27. 

56  ^  56      56        5«. 

(Deduce  the  rule.) 

Subtraction  of  Fractions. 

Problem  and  Operations. 

Subtract  j?  from  3_. 

5          4 
Operation  :  2 8_ 

~5~20 

jj 15 

4      30 

2o"~^=ao  Ans- 

Analysis. 
The  fractions  j*.  and  1  have    different    fractional 

5  4 

unite.  First  reduce  the  fraction  to  the  same  frac- 
tional unit  value.  JJ  equal  Hj;  ^  is  equal  to  J-,  as  th« 

4  20    5  20 

fractions  are  of  the  same  fractional  unit  value,  we 
may  subtract  one  numerator  from  the  other  giving 
aa  _L  (Deduce  the  rule.) 


220  ARITHMETIC, 


Multiplication   of  Fractions  —  To   Multiply   a 
Fraction  by  an  Integer. 

Problem  and  Operation. 
Multiply  _2  by  4. 

16 

Operation:  _£x4  —  8—  I 
16         ~~16  —  "2 


Multiplying  _£_  by  4,  by  multiplying  the  numerator 
16 

is  equal  to  8_  or  J_.    This  depends  upon  the  follow- 

16        2 

ing  principle  :    Multiplying  the  numerator  increases 
the  value  of  the  fraction,  because  it  increases  the 
number  of  fractional  units,  while  the  value  of  the 
fractional  unit  remains  the  same. 
Again,  multiplying  £  by  4,  by  dividing  the  denom- 

16 

inator,  is  equal  to  .£.  or  J_.    This  depends  upon  the 

4         2 

following  principle:  Dividing  the  denominator  in- 
creases the  value  of  the  fraction,  because  it  increases 
the  value  of  the  fractional  unit,  while  the  number  re- 
mains the  same;  it  increases  the  value  of  the  frac- 
tional unit,  because  the  unit  of  the  fraction  is  divided 
Into  a  less  number  of  fractional  units,  and  each  frac- 
tional unit  is  as  many  times  greater  in  value  as  there 
are  units  in  the  divisor.  (Deduce  the  rule.) 

To  Multiply  an  Integer  by  a  Fraction. 

Problem  and  Operation. 
Multiply  24  by  |. 


MULTIPLICATION  OF  FRACTIONS.       221 

Operation  (a) :    £  x  24=?1 

?4     0_48_16,  Ans. 

3  X-*— 3~ 

Operation  (b) :    *  of  24=8. 

8X2  —  16,  Ans. 

Operation  (c) :  34  x  2=48 

48  -4-3  =  16,  Ans. 
•    Analysis  of  Operation. 

(a)  Once  24  is  24;  1  times  24  is  ?*;  £  times  24 

3  33 

is  2  times  MOT  48—16,  Ans. 

3         3  ~ 

(b)  i  of  24  is  8  ;  1,  2  times  8  or  16,  Ans. 

:  s 

(c)  Multiplying  24  by  2=48;  as  the  multiplier  is 
three  times  too  great  in  value,  the  product  is  three 
times  too  great  in  value.    To  give  its  required  value 
divide  by  3,  which  gives  us  16,  Ans.    (Deduce  a 
rule.) 

NOTE.— See  that  the  pupil  understands  that  f  of  1 
is  the  same  as  J  of  2. 

To  Multiply  a  Fraction  by  a  Fraction* 

Problem  and  Operation. 
Multiply  8_  by  &. 
7        s 
Operation  (a) :  £  x  lori=l 

78  7 

1X1-A 

7  *  8  ~56 
3  y5      15  AMC 

-X  =^Ans. 

Operation  (b) :  £  x  5_16 
7        —7 

15  15 

7  X8  =  56  Ang. 


KB  ARITHMETIC. 

Analysis  of  Operation. 

(a)  £  multiplied  by  1  or  l=i;  i  multiplied  by  ¥ 

7  8  7_    7 

is  equal  to  £.     Since  £  multiplied  by  1.  is  equal  to 

56  7  8 

_?_ ,8_  multiplied  by  _6_  will  be  equal  to  5  times  3  or  15 

50   7  8  56       56 

(b)  Multiplying  £  by  5  is  the  same  as  multiplying 

78 
by  the  eighth  part  of  5.    First  multiply  3  by  5  — 

7 

15;  as  the  multiplier  is  eight  times  too  great  in  value 
7 

the  product  will  be  eight  times  too  great  in  value; 
hence  to  get  its  required  value  divide  1?  by  8,  by 

7 

multiplying  the  denominator,  which  gives  15. 

66 

Division  of  Fractions— To  Divide  a  Fraction 
by  an  Integer. 

Problem  and  Operation. 
Divide  8  by  3_. 

5 
Operation  (a):  _6__j_  3 £. 

7  ~ 1 

Operation  (b) :  6          _6._1. 
7X3  —21—7 

Analysis. 
Dividing^  by  3_^;  according  to  the  principle 

7    '       ~7 
which  says:  Dividing  the  numerator  decreases  the 

value  of  the  fraction,  because  it  diminishes  the  num- 
ber of  fractional  units,  while  the  value  of  the  frac- 
tional unit  remains  the  same. 
Again,  dividing  £  by  8,  by  multiplying  the  denom- 

7 

Inator  is  equal  to  £;  multiplying  the  denominator 
£1 


DIVISION  OF  FRACTIONS.  231 

decreases  the  value  of  the  fraction,  because  it  dimin- 
ishes the  value  of  the  fractional  unit,  while  the  num- 
ber of  fractional  units  remains  the  same  ;  it  dimin- 
ishes the  value  of  the  fractional  unit,  because  the 
unit  of  the  fraction  is  divided  into  a  greater  number 
of  fractional  units,  and  each  fractional  unit  is  as  many 
times  less  in  value  as  there  are  units  in  the  multiplier. 
(Deduce  the  rule.) 

To  Divide  an  Integer  by  a  Fraction. 

Problem  of  Operation, 
Divide  8  by  £. 


Operation  (a):  £  v  Q_<O. 
5  A     ~~5 

40-^8—  IQ 

T  •  T—  ld 
Operation  (b):  g  _._  g  _ 


In  1  there  are  6.;  in  8,  8  times  A  —  *2;  1?  divided  by 
1=18,. 

(b)  Divide  8  by  £,  or  the    fifth    part  of   three  ; 

• 

divide  8  by  3  gives  us  2J,  now  as  the  divisor  is 
five  times  too  great  in  value,  the  quotient  is  only  one- 
fifth  of  its  required  value  ;  to  get  its  required  value 
multiply  the  quotient  by  five,  which  gives  us  13J. 
(Deduce  the  rule.) 

To  Divide  a  Fraction  by  a  Fraction. 

Problem  and  Operation. 
Divide  f  by  f  . 


ARITHMETIC. 


Operation  (a):  -  x  3  —  _ 


9        _!_=!* 

7x3—8 


Operation  (b):lx2=| 


8  8~ 

Operation  (c):  -4=70 

T=l2 
«.*Jl— 1=14 

12  '  12~~  8 

Analysis  of  Operation. 

(a)  1  is  contained  in  f,  three-fourth  times;   i  is 
contained  in  J,  three  times  i,  or  -J-  times  ;  f  will  be 
contained  in  \t  j  of  ->  or-  times. 

(b)  Dividing  f  by  2  gives  us  f ;  as  the  divisor  is 
three  times  too  great  in  value,  the  quotient  is  only  $ 
of  its  required  value  ;  multiplying  the  quotient  f  by 

8  gives  us  JL=H  Ans. 
8 

(c)  Reduce  f  and  f  to  a  common  denominator,     f 
is  equal  to  9  •  2  is  equal  to  8  .  9  divided  by  8  \e 

18    8  18     12  M 

equal  to  JL 


FINAL  SUGGESTIONS.         .  228 

General  Remarks. 

It  is  not  expected  in  a  manual  for  teachers  to  ex- 
plain every  rule  in  arithmetic.  A  few  rules  have 
been  careful  y  explained  and  illustrated  in  detail  ; 
and  these  are  suggestive  only.  The  plan  of  this  work 
has  been  to  give  a  course  of  reasoning  leading  to 
those  conclusions  from  which  rules  are  drawn, — and 
this  is  given  in  language  free  from  technicalities,  and 
easy  to  be  understood. 

The  explanations  for  Written  Arithmetic  are  so 
given  as  to  put  the  pupil  into  the  place  of  the  origi- 
nal reasoner,  until  he  arrives  at  a  conclusion  from 
which  he  can  deduce  the  rule  for  himself. 

After  the  pupils  are  familiar  with  the  process 
and  have  received  sufficient  drill,  they  should  be 
taught  to  analyze  problems.  The  teacher  should  see 
that  the-analysis  is  thoroughly  understood  and  accu- 
rately, recited.  They  should  be  required  to  write  out 
an  analysis,  and  the  pupil  that  presents  the  most  sim- 
ple and  concise  analysis  should  write  it  on  the  board, 
subject  to  the  criticism  of  the  class.  See  that  the  lan- 
guage is  used  correctly  ;  that  it  tells  "  the  truth,  the 
whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth.1'1  Now,  require 
every  member  of  the  class  to  comtn.t  the  analysis 
verbatim,  as  he  would  a  demonstration  in  Euclid — for 
experience  teaches  that  those  pupils  who  are  critically 
close  in  committing  verbatim  the  demonstrations  in 
Geometry  make  by  far  more  accurate  reasoners  and, 
ready  mathematicians . 

There  are  teachers  who  allow  a  wide  range  in  the 
forms  of  analysis  as  long  as  the  language  is  good  and 


236  ARITHMETIC. 


the  reasoning  logical.  While  we  would  insist  upon 
the  development  of  individuality  and  originality  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils,  yet,  as  mathematics  is  an  ex- 
act science,  the  language  used  in  the  analysis  should 
It9  exact. 

I  cannot  see  how  language  may  be  cultivated  if  the 
teachers  allow  a  wide  range  in  the  use  of  words  ;  I 
call  that  the  best  analysis  which  is  the  most  simple 
and  concise. 

Retracing  the  Steps  in  the  Solution  of  a  Prob- 
lem. 

It  is  very  common  for  the  pupil  to  suppose  that  to 
explain  an  example  simply  means  to  state  what  ope- 
rations— what  processes  were  performed  in  reaching 
the  results.  Hence,~he  will  consider  it  an  unreason- 
able question  if  asked  why  he  added  or  subtracted, 
multiplied  or  divided. 

Such  an  explanation  should  never  be  accepted.  To 
explain  a  problem,  means  to  assign  a  reason  for  each 
of  the  several  steps.  I  have  heard  the  following 
given  as  an  analysis  to  a  problem  in  division  of  frac- 
tions. Divide  f  by  f. 

"  Invert  the  terms  of  the  divisor  and  proceed  as  in 
multiplication."  The  rule  tells  how  to  solve  the  prob- 
lem ;  the  analysis  gives  the  reason  for  each  step. 

Practical    Problems. 

A  large  number  of  pupils  who  pass  through  the 
entire  arithmetical  course  in  our  best  schools  fail  to 
make  application  of  their  knowledge.  This  is  owing 
to  a  lack  of  practical  application  of  the  rules.  For 


STICK  TO   THE  PRACTICAL.  22? 

example,  let  them  measure  the  school  room,  find  out 
the  area,  measure  the  yard,  fields,  etc. ;  in  all  the 
tables  make  a  practical  application  at  the  time. 

Too  much  time  is  wasted  in  solving  problems  in 
continued  addition,  multiplication,  division  ;  I  have 
known  a  class  to  linger  a  week  upon  casting  out  the 
y'sin  addition.  All  such  subjects  as  these  and  many 
others,  like  circulating  decimals,  true  remainder,  for- 
eign exchange,  alligation,  algebraical  and  geometri- 
cal problems,  should  be  omitted  in  our  public  schools. 
By  those  who  wish  to  pursue  advanced  studies,  the 
subjects  quoted  may  be  studied  ;  but,  as  a  majority 
of  the  pupils  leave  school  at  the  average  age  of 
twelve  years,  they  should  be  drilled  upon  the  subjects 
that  they  will  be  obliged  to  use' through  life. 

I  would  go  so  far  that  when  a  class  had  finished  a 
portion  of  the  arithmetic, — say  to  fractious, — every 
member  should  be  able  to  solve  any  problem  under 
the  rules,  giving  a  simple  analysis,  deducing  the  rule 
and  reproducing  the  definitions. 

Problems. 

The  pupils  should  bring  to  the  class  upon  their 
slates  or  paper,  problems  already  solved,  with  their 
analysis. 

The  teacher  should  be  sure  to  hear  the  lesson  as- 
signed, otherwise  the  pupil  may  become  careless  in 
its  preparation.  After  the  pupils  have  recited  what 
they  have  prepared,  they  should  be  put  to  the  test  in 
many  ways ;  the  skilful  teacher  will  not  only  examine 
the  pupils,  but  will  cross-examine  them.  The  teacher 
should  call  upon  pupils  for  an  original  problem ; 


*28  ARITHMETIC. 


should  give  them  practical  problems  and  not  leave  a 
subject  until  they  are  able  to  make  application  of  it, 
under  each  subject  discussed.  These  should  be  ex- 
amined by  the  teacher,  carefully  corrected  and  re- 
turned to  the  pupil.  These  exercises  should  be  con- 
tinued until  good  examples,  illustrating  any  point 
that  may  be  presented,  can  be  given  in  the  class  with-r 
out  previous  preparation. 

They  should  be  made  familiar  with  the  simplest 
forms  of  commercial  paper;  able  to  write  a  negotia- 
able  note;  cast  interest  upon  notes  where  partial  pay- 
ments have  been  made;  find  the  profit  and  loss  upon 
articles  bought  and  sold.  No  subject  is  fully  mas- 
tered by  the  pupil  until  he  is  able  to  illustrate  in  this 
manner. 

Whatever  text-books  are  used,  many  outside  prob- 
lems should  be  given.  Among  the  books  of  prob- 
lems published  are  the  following:  1.  The  Regents' 
Questions;  1866-1878;  in  book  form,  25  cts.;  key  25 
cts.  Boxes  of  these  problems,  each,  on  a  card-board 
slip,  with  Key,  $1.00.  Davis,  Bardeen  &  Co.,  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.  2.  Wentworth's  Arithmetical  Problems, 
75  cts.  Harper  &  Bros.,  New  York.  3.  Robinson's 
Arithmetical  Problems,  $1.00.  Key,  $1.00.  Ivison 
Blakeman,  Taylor  &  Co.,  New  York.  4.  Ray's  Test 
Examples,  45  cts.  Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co.,  Cin- 
cinnati. 


GRAMMAR. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

Oral  lessons  should  precede  the  study  of  the  text- 
book, as  a  preparation  for  it.  The  ideas  involved  in 
the  definitions  should  be  developed,  before  the  pupils 
are  required  to  commit  these  definitions  to  memory. 
The  contrary  practice,-once  so  common,  is  very  dis- 
couraging and  injurious  to  the  pupil,  since  it  compels 
him  to  learn  by  rote  a  mass  of  verbiage  which  is 
perfectly  unintelligible  to  him. 

Our  text-books  appeal  chiefly  to  the  memory  and 
the  ordinary  grammar  should  be  presented  to  a  class 
as  the  study  of  language.  Another  reason  why  pu- 
pils so  often  dislike  grammar  is  that  they  are  hurried 
over  the  subject  so  rapidly  that  they  become  bewil- 
dered and  utterly  discouraged. 

Gratnniar  deals  largely  with  abstract  subjects,  and 
for  this  reason  alone,  time  is  an  important  element  in 
the  attainment  of  proficiency.  A  great  deal  of  time 
is  wasted  upon  this  subject;  if  wisely  presented,  as  it 
should  be,  it  will  prove  one  of  the  most  delightful 
and  interesting  studies. 

One  of  the  most  common  faults  in  teaching  gram- 
mar is  that  of  requiring  pupils  to  commit  to  memory 
too  many  definitions,  rules  and  observations. 


330 


GRAMMAR. 


It  is  an  abstract  subject  and  at  first  it  should  be 
taught  orally,  ;  all  the  terms  should  be  carefully 
developed,  explained,  and  fully  illustrated  by  copious 
examples.  When  these  terms  are  fully  understood, 
then,  and  not  until  then,  should  the  pupils  be  required 
to  commit  them  to  memory.  As  fast  as  the  terms 
are  learned,  the  pupils  should  be  required,  in  all 
cases,  to  embody  them  in  sentences  of  their  own  con- 
struction. 

Grammar. 
The  Sentence. 


I.   ^Develop  the  Sentence. 
II.   Develop  the*  parts  of  a 
Sentence. 


III.  develop  the  kinds  of 
Sentences  (as  to  use!) 


IV,  develop  the  forms  of 
Sentences  (as  to  prop= 
csitions?) 


(Subject. 

Predicate. 
7.  &fieclara- 
tive. 

2.  interroga- 

tive. 

3.  impera- 

tive. 

4.  Sxclama* 
tory. 

7.  Simple. 

2.  Complex. 

3.  Compound. 


PRELIMINARY  INSTRUCTION.  231 


V.   3each  the  correct  use  of  Capital 

ters. 

VI.   3  each  the  correct  use  of  Punctuation 
Maries. 

Manner  of  Teaching  the  First  Lessons  in 
Grammar. 

The  Sentence.  —  Lesson  No.  1. 

Ask  the  pupils  to  think  of  some  object  Ask  them 
how  you  may  know  the  name  of  the  object.  They 
perceive  that  before  their  thoughts  can  be  known  to 
others  they  must  express  them.  In  order  to  commu- 
nicate your  thoughts,  what  must  you  use?  They 
will  discover  that  to  express  a  thought,  they  must 
use  words.  Now  ask  each  pupil  to  express  the 
thought,  as  "  the  bird  sings;"  "  the  tree  grows;"  "the 
boy  laughs;"  "  the  clock  ticks,"  etc.  They  are  now 
told  that  a  thought  expressed  in  words  is  called  a 
sentence. 

Require  the  pupils  to  form  several  sentences  oral- 
ly, using  the  following  analysis; 

c/  first  thinlc  about  something  •  c/  use 
words  to  express  my  thought.  3he  words 
used  are:  "She  lird  sings.  })  $hese 
words  express  a  thought,  and  it  is  called  a 
sentence.  <9l  thought  expressed  in  words 
is  called  a  sentence. 


233  .  GRAMMAR. 


the  Subject. 

The  pupils  have  already  discovered  that  there  must 
be  an  object  or  subject  of  thought  in  the  mind.  And 
when  they  tell  their  .thoughts  they  speak  of  some  ob« 
ject  or  subject  and  tell  something  about  it.  They 
are  led  to  see  this  in  every  sentence  By  repeated 
trials  they  soon  find  that  they  can  form  no  sentence 
•without  speaking  of  sometfiing  and  telling  something 
about  it. 

From  this  explanation  they  will  see  that  that  of 
which  something  is  said  or  which  is  spoken  of,  is  called 
the  subject;  and  that  which  tells  what  is  said  of  the 
subject  is  called  the  predicate. 

Ask  the  pupils  to  express  a  sentence  and  analyze 
it.  "  The  clock  ticks." 

"She  clocTc  ticks/3  is  a  thought  expressed 
in  words  j  it  is  a  sentence j  the  word 
(l  clock**  represents  the  object  spoken  of: 
it  is  the  subject.  $he  word  i(  ticks  **  rep- 
resents what  is  said  of  the  cloclo  ;'  it  is  the 
predicate. 

That  of  which  something  is  said,  is  called  the  sub- 
ject. 

That  which  is  said  of  the  subject,  is  called  the 
predicate. 

The  Object. 

By  a  similar  process  of  development  the  pupils 
are  led  to  observe  the  object  of  a  sentence 


XINDS  OF  SENTENCES.  233 

The  teacher  should  write  at  the  board  all  the  sen- 
tences given. 

Kinds  of  Sentence*. 

It  would  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  ask  questions 
of  the  pupils  and  endeavor  to  get  in  reply  the  differ- 
ent kirxls  of  sentences,  as  asking,  telling,  etc.  The 
teacher  should  write  these  sentences  as  given  by  the 
pupils  on  the  board,  and  let  the  pupils  discover  the 
differences.  Let  them  see  that  every  telling  or  decla- 
tive  sentence,  ends  with  a  period.  Every  asking  or 
interrogative  sentence  ends  with  the  mark  of  interro- 
gation, every  exclaiming  sentence  with  an  exclama- 
tion point,  and  every  commanding  or  imperative  sen- 
tence with  a  periods 

Review. 

NOTE. — To  be  committed  to  memory. 

7.   £4  thought  expressed  in  words  is  a 
sentence. 

2.  3 hat  of  which  something  is  said;  is 
called  the  subject. 

3.  ffhat  which  tells  what  is  said  of  the 
subject,  is  called  the  predicate. 

4.  3hat  which  receives  the  act;  expressed 
by  the  predicate,  is  calhd  the  object. 

5.  Svery  sentence  should  l)egin  with  a 
capital  letter. 


234  GRAMMAR. 


6.  Svery  sentence  should  end  with  a 
punctuation  mark. 

The  Telling*  or  Declarative  Sentence. 

Let  ion  No.  2. 

Q.  Make  a  sentence  about  this  cap. 

A.  The  cap  is  red. 

NOTE.— The  teacher  writes  it  on  the  board,  while 
the  pupils  spell  the  words. 

Q.  What  did  you  do  when  you  made  this  sen- 
tence ? 

A.  We  told  you  something  said  about  the  cap. 

Q.  Because  this  sentence  tells  or  says  something, 
what  kind  of  a  sentence  may  we  call  it  ? 

A.  We  may  call  it  a  telling  sentence. 

Q.  What  then  is  a  telling  sentence  ? 

A.  A  septence  that  tells  or  declares  something. 

Q.  What  mark  must  be  placed  after  the  last  word 
of  every  telling  sentence  ? 

A.  A  period. 

Q.  What  have  we  learned  in  our  lesson  of  to-dayf 

£4.  <S€  sentence  that  tells  something }  is 
called  a  telling}  or  declarative  sentence. 
We  must  place  a  period  after  the  last 
word  of  every  telling,  or  declarative  sen= 
tence. 

NOTE. — Require  the  pupils  to  write  on  their  slates 
the  definition  of  a  sentence,  subject,  predicate,  ob- 


1MPEKA  TIVE  SENTENCES.  23& 

ject,  a  telling  sentence  and  the  rule  for  punctuation. 
Let  the  pupils  spell  the  words,  and  examine  the 
slates  carefully  . 

The  Asking,  or  Interrogative  Sentence. 

T.  I  will  ask  you  a  question,  and  will  write  it  on 
the  board.  "  Do  you  love  study  ?"  "What  did  I  do  t 

Pa.  1-ou  asked  a  question. 

T.  Because  it  asks  a  question,  what  kind  of  a  sen- 
tence is  it  V 

Fu.  An  asking  sentence 

T.  What  is  an  asking  sentence  ? 

Pa.  A  sentence  that  asks  a  question,  is  an  asking 
sentence. 

ISOTK. — Let  the  pupils  repeat,  spell  words  and 
write  the  definition  on  their  slates;  ask  them  to  ex- 
amine the  leading  books,  and  bring  in  asking  sen- 
tences. 

Drill  upon  the  above  until  every  member  knows 
how  to  use  the  period  and  interrogation  mark . 

The  Commanding,  or  Imperative  Sentence. 

T.  Tell  me  to  do  something.     Can  I  use  another 
word  instead  of  tell  ? 
Pu.  You  can  use  command. 
T.  Give  me  a  command. 
Pu.  Hand  me  a  cup 
T.  What  does  this  sentence  do  ? 
Pu.  It  makes  a  command. 
T.  What  kind  of  a  sentence  may  we  call  it  f 
Pu.  A  commanding  sentence. 


236  ORAMMAB. 


T    What  is  a  commanding  sentence  ? 
Pu.  A  sentence  that  expresses  a  command  is  a 
commanding  sentence. 

T.  What  mark  have  I  placed  after  the  last  word 
of  the  commanding  sentence? 
Pu .  A  period . 

T.  How  do  I  begin  a  commanding  sentence? 
Pu.  With  a  capital  letter. 
T.  How  do  I  close  it  ? 
Pu.  With  a  period. 
T.  What  is  a  sentence  ? 

What  is  a  telling  sentence  ? 

What  is  an  asking  sentence? 

What  is  a  commanding  sentence? 

How  do  I  close  every  asking  sentence  ? 

How  do  I  close  every  telling  sentence  ? 

Write  five  telling,  five  asking,  and  five  com- 
manding sentences. 

Write  the  definitions  of  the  telling,  asking  and 
commanding  sentence. 

The  Exclaiming,  or  Exclamatory  Sentence* 

T.  If  you  should  see  a  house  on  fire,  what  would 
you  say  ? 

Pu.  O,  see  the  fire  !    A  house  on  fire  ! 
T.  What  would  you  call  these  expressions? 
Pu.  Exclamations 
T.  What  do  these  sentences  do  ? 
Pu.  They  make  exclamations. 
T.  What  kind  of  sentences  are  they  ? 
Pu.  Exclaiming  sentences. 


EXCLAIMING  SENTENCES.  237 

T.  What  is  an  exclaiming  sentence? 

Pu.  A  sentence  that  makes  an  exclamation,  is  an 
exclaimfng  sentence. 

T.  What  mark  do  you  find  after  the  last  word  ? 

Pu.  An  exclamation  point. 

T.  You  may  all  write  an  exclaiming  sentence. 

NOTE.— Require  the  pupils  to  repeat  all  the  defini- 
tions, —see  that  they  understand  the  idea  before  com- 
mitting them  to  memory.  Let  them  construct  and 
write  many  sentences,  and  hold  them  rigidly  to  the 
correct  use  of  capital  letters  and  punctuation  marks, 
and  require  neatness  in  every  exercise.  Work  on 
each  sentence  until  it  is  right.  If  necessary  to  suc- 
cess, be  willing  to  work  three  days  on  one  short  les- 
son. "  Not  how  much,  but  how  well "  should  be 
the  motto. 

Review. 

NOTE. — To  be  committed  to  memory. 

r.   <ftf  thought  expressed  in  words  is  a 
Sentence. 

2.  <S4>    sentence    that    tells   or    declares 
something  is  a  Selling  or  @jeclar:ng  -§en= 

tence, 

i 

3.  £4fter  the  last  word  of  every  Celling 
or    Declaring  Sentence  we,  must  place  a 
period. 


338  GRAMMAR. 


4.  £4*  sentence  that  aslcs  a  question  is 
an  £4slcing  or  interrogating  Sentence. 

5.  £4fter  the  last  word  of  every  £4sJcing 
or  interrogative  Sentence  we  must  place 
an  interrogation  mark. 

6.  £4  sentence    that  expresses    a  com= 
mand  is  called  a  Commanding  or 
perative  Sentence. 

?.   £4fter  the  last  word  of  every 
manding  or  imperative  Sentence,  we  must 
place  a  period. 

8.  <S4>  sentence  that  makes  an  exclama- 
tion  is    an    Exclaiming   or    Exclamatory 
Sentence. 

9.  £4fter  the  last  word  of  every  Exclaim* 
•ing  or  Exclamatory  <$>entencet  we  must  use 

tJie  exclamation  point. 

NOTE.— Simple  as  this  may  seem,  it  requires  on  the 

,  part  of  the  teacher  a  great  deal  of  patience  to  teach 

it  thoroughly.     This  is  a  very  important  subject,  and 

the  pupils  should  be  able  to  make  practical  applica- 

t,ion  of  the  above  points.     "  Make  haste  slowly." 

Uses  of  Capital  Letters. 
The  attention  of  the  pupils  should  be  called  to  the 


SENTENCES  AND  PROPOSITIONS.          239 

capital  letters  at  the  beginning  of  all  these  different 
sentences.  This  is  very  important,  and  one  of  the 
most  practical  rules  in  grammar.  Require  written 
exercises  to  be  brought  into  the  class,  subject  to  the 
criticism  of  the  class  and  the  teacher. 

Recapitulation. 

After  the  pupils  have  been  made  thoroughly  famil- 
iar with  the  sentence,  subject,  predicate  and  object, 
also  the  kinds  of  sentences,  capital  letters  and  punc- 
tuation marks,  they  should  be  required  to  form  sen- 
tences and  analyze  them,  and  write  the  definitions 
of  all  the  terms  that  have  been  taught.  A  perfect 
understanding  of  the  thought  to  be  expressed  is  essen- 
tial to  correct  analysis  ;  hence,  the  first  step  should 
be  to  prepare  the  pupils  to  analyze  sentences  they 
themselves  have  constructed.  When  they  shall  be- 
come quite  expert  at  this,  they  may  analyze  the 
thoughts  of  others. 

Let  it  be  the  aim  of  the  teacher  to  present  the  sub- 
ject so  pleasantly  and  attractively  that  pupils  will  not 
say,  as  is  often  the  case,  "what  a  dry,  distasteful, 
uninteresting  subject." 

Sentences  Classified  According  to  their 
Propositions. 

Lesson   1. 

T.  Jennie,  what  have  you  in  your  hand  ? 
Pit.  "  I  have  a  book  "    (Teacher  writes  the  answR 
on  the  board.) 

T.  What  is  the  subject  ? 
Pu,  The  subject  is  "  I." 


240  GRAMMAR, 


'   T.  What  is  the  predicate? 
Pu.  "  Have  a  book." 

$.  When  the  subject  and  predicate  ex- 
press a  complete  thought  it  is  called  a 
single  proposition. 

T.  You  may  now  repeat  it. 

Pa.  Suppose  it  does  not  express  a  complete 
thought  ?  Oh,  Mary,  you  are  thinking. 

T.  It  may,  or  it  may  not,  express  a  complete 
thought,  and  still  be  a  proposition  ;  for  a  proposition 
is  the  union  of  a  subject  and  a  predicate.  In  the 
example.  •'  I  have  a  book,"  the  thought  is  complete. 
In  the  example,  "  If  I  go,'  it  is  incomplete ;  both 
are  propositions. 

Fred,  do  you  like  all  the  boys  in  school  f 

Pu.  I  like  the  boys  who  study. 

T.  Read  the  first  proposition. 

Pu.  "I  like  the  boys." 

T.  That  is  right:  why  is  that  a  proposition? 

Pu.  Because  it  is  the  union  of  a  subject  and  a 
predicate. 

T.  What  kind  of  a  proposition  is  it  ? 

Pu.  A  single  preposition,  because  it  expresses  com- 
plete sense. 

T.  Do  the  words  "  who  study,"  make  sense  ? 

Pu.  They  do  not,  if  used  alone,  but  with  the  other 
proposition,  they  assist  to  complete  the  sense. 

T.  That  is  right.  Are  the  words  "who  study,"  a 
proposition  ? 

Pu.  They  are  ;  because  it  is  the  union  of  a  subject 


SENTENCES  AND  PROPOSITIONS.          241 

and  predicate.    A   proposition  by  itself  may  or  may 
not  form  a  sentence. 

T.  What  is  such  a  proposition  as  "who  study," 
called  ?  Do  you  know  ? 

J*u.  It  is  called  the  second  proposition. 

T.  You  might  call  it  that,  hut  it  would  not  be  defi- 
nite: we  will  call  it  a  clause,  as  it  performs  different 
offices. 

T.  In  the  sentence  "  I  like  ihe  boys  who  study," 
•which  do  you  think  is  the  principal  proposition  ? 

Pu.   "I  like  the  boys." 

T.   Why  do  you  thiuk  that  is  the  principal  ? 

I'u.  Because  it  is  that  which  expresses  the  leading 
thought. 

T.  That  is  right  Let  all  repeat  that.  That  which 
expresses  the  leading  thought  is  the  leading  proposi- 
tion. 

Pu.  But  what  of  the  words  "  who  study  ?" 

T.  Do  they  make  complete  sense  ? 

Pu.  They  do  not;  they  seem  to  have  something 
tt>  do  with  the  principal  proposition. 

T.  That  is  right,  John.  They  tell  the  kind  of  boys. 
"We  may  call  them  the  "  study  boys."  It  is  not  the 
principal  proposition.  What  shall  we  call  it  ?  In  a 

regiment  we  h»ve  principal  officers  and (Fred 

answers)  "subordinate."  That  is  right,  Fred.  AM 
the  words  "  who  study  "  modify  the  principal  prop- 
osition we  will  call  it  a  subordinate  clause.  Now, 
my  brave  fellows,  what  is  a  subordinate  clause? 

Pu.  The  clause  that  modifies  the  principal  propo- 
•ItioD,  is  a  subordinate  clause. 


M2  GRAMMAR. 


T.  You  may  all  repeat  it  slowly;  so  you  Bee  that 
subordinate  parts  or  elements  are  those  that  belong  to 
other  elements.  They  are  called  subordinate  because 
they  are  under  in  order,  or  in  importance. 

7'.  Now,  let  us  find  another  kind  of  proposition. 
I  see  two  boys  in  the  park.  Tell  their  names. 

Pu.  Charles  and  Frank. 

T.  What  are  they  doing  ? 

Pu.  Charles  runs  and  Frank  walks. 

(Teacher  writes  answer  at  the  board.) 

T.  Read  the  first  proposition  ? 

Pu.  '*  Charles  runs." 

T.  Read  the  second  proposition  ? 

Pu.  "  Frank  walks." 

T.  Does  the  last  proposition  belong  to  any  word 
in  the  first? 

Pu.  It  does  not. 

T.  Does  the  first  proposition  belong  to  any  word 
to  the  second  ? 

Pu.  It  does  not. 

T.  Does  the  first  proposition  express  a  complete 
thought  in  itself  ? 

Pu.  It  does. 

T.  Does  the  second  proposition  express  a  com- 
plete thought  in  itself-  f 

Pu.  It  does. 

T.  Since  each  proposition  expresses  a  thought  by 
itself,  meaning  that  it  is  not  dependent,  what  shall 
we  call  it  ?  I  will  tell  you.  We  call  the  proposi- 
tions co-ordinate.  It  means  that  the  propositions  are 
of  equal  rank.  We  will  now  repeat.  Proposition 
of  equal  rank  or  order  are  called  co-ordinate. 


KINDS  OF  SENTENCES.  241 

$.  <S4>  sentence  composed  of  one  propo- 
sition is  called  a  simple  sentence  •  a,  sen- 
tence composed  of  a  principal  and  sub- 
ordinate  propositions^  is  called  a  complex 
sentence  y  a  sentence  composed  of  two  or 
more  co-ordinate  propositions  is  called  a 
compound  sentence. 

NOTE. — The  teacher  should  not  leave  this  division 
until  the  pupils  can  bring  into  the  recitation  written 
examples  of  ail  the  different  sentences.  Also,  re- 
quire the  pupils  to  analyze  the  sentences. 

Review. 

/.  <£&  proposition  is  the  union  of  a  sub- 
ject and  a  predicate. 

2.  «£#  proposition  by  itself  .may  or  may 
not  form  a  sentence. 

3.  £4  single  proposition  is  a  sentence 
when  it  expresses  a  complete  thought. 

4.  £4  proposition  may  form  an  element 
of  a  sentence j  it  is  then  called  a  clause. 

5.  $he  principal  proposition  of  a  sen- 
tence is  that  which  expresses  the  leading 
thcught. 


GKAMMAX. 


6.  £4  subordinate  proposition  is  one  that 
modifies  the  principal. 

?.  9i>o=ordinate  propositions  are  those  of 
equal  rank  in  the  same  sentence. 

8.  <S4>  simple  sentence  is  one  composed 
of  but  one  proposition. 

&.  <£€  complex  sentence  is  one  composed 
of  a  principal  and  one  or  more  subordi- 
nate propositions. 

TO.  £4>  compound  sentence  is  one  com- 
posed of  two  or  more  co-ordinate  proposi- 
tions. 

Classification  of  Sentences  and  their  Ele- 
ments. 


Sentences, 

Clauses, 

Phrases, 

Subjects, 

Predicates, 

Objects, 

Attributes, 

Modifiers, 


Sentences, 


Simple, 


are  classified  in  respect  •{  Compound, 
to  form  and  use,  as 


_  Complex. 


are  classified  f  Declarative, 
in  respect  to  I  Interrogative, 
'kind  or  prop- I  Imperative, 
osition,  as     ^Exclamative,  . 


affirma- 
tive 
or 
negative 


rno«  I  are  classified  in  respect  j  £MK!ltA 

™*™*<      [to  kind  and  proposi&n,  j  g££±!£ 


GENERAL  FORMULA. 


245 


Phrases, 

Sentences, 

Clauses,       I^SS^S^ 


Phrases,     j 
Elements    1 

Of 

Sentences.  J 


I       to  office  and  use. 


Principal,    )Su^- 

"   )  Object, 
J  Modifiers. 

Elements  )  are  classified  (  FrinciPal> 
of  Phrases  I          into 


Substantive, 
Adjective, 
Adverbial, 
.  Independent. 

(  Verb.      . 
•j  Copula    and 
(  "attribute. 


I 


(  Adjunct, 


Connective, 
Subsequent, 

Words, 
Modifiers. 


1  Conjunction,  {££»£&. 


!  Conjunctive  Adverbs, 

Connecting  Elements  •{  Copulas, 

are  classified  into         Phrases, 

Relative  Pronouns, 
j  Prepositions. 

Independent  Elements  j  Interjections, 


GEOGRAPHY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

That  we  begin  to  teach  where  the  philosopher 
ends,  is  singularly  applicable  to  the  three  extra 
subjects  of  elementary  schools — geography,  grammar 
and  reading. 

Few  among  teachers  have  seen  that  the  scientific 
study  of  a  subject  implies  that  the  mind  has  been 
first  furnished  with  the  ideas  and  facts  which  form 
the  subject-matter  of  it,  and  which  it  is  the  province 
of  science  to  explain  and  classify. 

As  a  branch  of  school  instruction,  Geography  has 
two  stages,  —  a  preparatory,  and  a  systematic  or 
scientific  one. 

Primary  Geography. 

In  the  primary  or  preparatory,  the  object  should 
be  to  furnish  the  mind  with  so  much  of  the  material 
as  is  necessary  to  make  the  systematic  study  interest- 
ing and  profitable  ;  in  the  advanced  or  scientific 
study,  the  aim  should  be  careful  teaching  to  make  it 
an  instrument  of  intellectual  discipline. 

Geography  acquires  its  full  value  as  a  branch  of 
education  only  when  it  loses  the  character  of  &u 
accumulation  of  facts,  undigested  by  the  child's  mind. 


FIRST  STEPS  IN  GEOGRAPHY.          -HI 

and  becomes  real  in  his  memory,  linked  by  association 
with  the  world  of  thought  and  action  which  immedi- 
ately surrounds  it  or  that  which  is  within  it. 

Tell  the  child  to  observe  the  lines  of  the  map  which 
hangs  perpetually  before  bis  eyes,  and  talk  to  him 
only  of  the  names  upon  it,  and  you  will  soon  weary 
his  attention;  but  speak  to  him  of  the  living  men  who 
inhabit  that  country, — tell  him  of  their  stature  and 
aspect  and  dress,  and  ways  of  life,  and  of  their  forms 
of  worship;  speak  of  its  climate — of  the  forms 
of  vegetable  and  animal  life  with  which  his  eye 
would  be  conversant  if  he  dwelt  there — of  trees  and 
flowers,  and  you  excite  him  to  a  new  life. 

First  Step. 

/.  Talk  about  the  earth  as  a  whole — of  what  it  is 
composed  and  what  may  be  found  upon  it. 

The  heavens  catch  the  child's  attention  early,  and 
he  wishes  to  know  about  the  sun,  moon  and  stars. 
He  has  a  general  knowledge  of  the  earth ;  he  has 
learned  something  about  land  and  water,  varieties  of 
surface,  the  location  of  places,  vegetable  products, 
natural  and  cultivated,  and  the  animal  and  mineral 
kingdoms. 

These  things  may  be  said  to  comprise  the  elements 
ot  geographical  study;  and  they  may  be  made  the 
subjects  of  direct  study  by  the  children. 

With  these,  the  study  of  geography  may  begin ; 
not  by  learning  words  from  a  book,  but  by  actual 
observation,  guided  by  the  oral  instruction  of  the 
teacher. 


348  GEOGRAPHY. 


In  teaching  the  first  step  in  geography,  exp'ain  to 
the  children  that  the  sun,  moon  and  stars  .tre  large 
balls,  and  that  they  resemble  the  ball  we  live  upon. 
Tell  them  that  we  call  this  ball  the  earth,  ami  tiiat 
"the  earth  hangeth  upon  nothing,"  floating"  free  ia 
space  like  a  bird  in  the  air.  To  excite  th»-  pupils' 
curiosity,  and  give  them  a  correct  idea  of  the  fcrm  of 
the  earth,  blow  a  few  soap  bubbles  bef-re  them,  and 
let  them  float  in  the  air.  Tell  vhem  that  a  bcdy  of 
the  shape  of  a  ball  is  called  a  globe  or  a  sphere. 
Talk  about  the  outside  of  different  objects  and  tell 
them  that  the  outside  of  an  object  is  called  the  sur- 
face. The  outside  of  the  earth  is  called  the  surface 
of  the  earth. 

The  immense  magnitude  of  the  great  globe  he  can- 
not as  yet  imagine  ;  at  first  be  content  to  see  that  he 
understands  its  form  and  motion. 

Let  the  children  see  that  if  they  should  walk  on  the 
earth  a  certain  number  of  hours  or  days  in  any  direc- 
tion, they  would  come  to  the  water. 

They  will  now  see  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
composed  of  land  and  water. 

Tell  them  the  fact  that  one-fourth  of  the  earth's 
surface  is  land  and  that  three-fourths  is  water. 

Now  explain  to  the  child  the  figures  011  t'ne  g^be ; 
which  is  meant  for  land,  which  for  water,  and  show 
him  his  own  country. 

Draw  an  oblong  figure  upon  the  board  and  divide 
It  into  four  parts,  let  three  parts  represent  the  water 
and  one  part  the  land.  Draw  a  circle  upon  the  board 
and  let  three  parts  represent  the  water  and  ouc  part 


LESSONS  ON  THE  GLOBE.  249 

the  land.  Use  colored  chalk.  The  illustrations  will 
tend  to  impress  the  correct  ideas  on  the  mind. 
14  Happy  illustrations  excite  curiosity  " 
.  Now,  on  looking  at  the  globe,  the  first  thing  that 
must  strike  every  one  is,  how  much  more  water  there 
is  <m  it  than  dry  land.  Tell  the  children  that  we  may 
ride  for  days  and  weeks  on  the  water  and  not  see  any 
land. 

Let  them  see  how  very  unequally  the  land. is 
arranged,  instead  of  being  spread  evenly  all  over 
the  surface;  it  is  collected  together,  some  portions 
very  large  and  some  very  small.  Let  them  see  the 
roughness  of  the  fields  and  roads  and  hills,  not  to 
speak  of  the  high  mountains  or  depths  of  the  sea. 

In  the  foregoing  account  we  have  spoken  of  the 
earth  as  a  sphere,  or  a  globe,  or  an  exactly  round 
ball.  But  this  though  practically  true  for  our  pur- 
pose, is  not  strictly  correct,  for  the  earth  is  not  exactly 
round  You  can  see  it  is  not.  On  so  big  a  ball  as 
the  earth  however,  these  things  do  not  count  for 
much.  The  earth,  although  so  large,  so  many  miles 
around  it,  may  be  traveled  over — we  can  go  around 
it.  A  train  of  cars  at  the  rate  of  40  miles  per  hour, 
would  pass  around  the  earth  in  about  26  days. 

Now,  ask  the  children  what  may  be  found  upon 
the  surface  of  the  earth  ?  They  will  give  names  to 
the  different  kinds  of  matter,  such  as  trees,  shrubs, 
plants,  rocks,  and  horses,  cows,  etc. 

Let  them  see  that  the  different  things  named  may 
be  classified.  Tell  them  to  name  the  different  things 
found  within  the  earth  that  do  not  grow  :  as  iron, 


250  GEOGRAPHY. 


lead,  gold,  silver,  rocks,  pebbles,  sand,  etc.  Tell 
them  that  these  objects  belong  to  the  Mineral  Class. 

Tell  them  to  name  the  things  only  that  grow  out  of 
the  earth  :  as  trees,  plants,  shrubs  ;  the  different 
kinds  of  trees,  plants  and  shrubs.  Tell  them  that 
these  objects  belong  to  the  Vegetable  Class. 

Tell  them  to  name  the  animals  that  are  found  on 
the  land,  in  the  water,  and  in  the  air.  Tell  them 
that  these  objects  belong  to  the  Animal  Class. 

Ask  the  children  which  class  they  belong  to,  and 
tell  them  wherein  they  differ.  That  plants  grow, 
breathe,  take  food  and  die.  That  brutes  do  the  same  j 
but  that  men  differ  in  that  they  also  possess  a  mind 

and  a  soul. 

For  Recitation. 

1.  The  earth  is  a  large  ball  or  sphere. 

2.  Its  surface  is  composed  of  land  and  water ;  one- 
fourth  is  land  and  three-fourths  are  water. 

8.  Minerals,  vegetation  and  animals  are  found  upon 

the  earth. 

Second  Step. 

II. "  Qite  instruction  -upon  the  relative  position  oj  ob- 
jects and  places. 

Draw  their  observation  to  relation,  position  or 
place,  beginning  with  the  situation  of  the  things 
which  they  see  around  them,  and  the  distances  of 
these  from  each  other.  Question  the  children  as  to 
the  position  of  objects  before  them,  and  lead  them 
to  describe  how  they  are  placed  with  regard  to  each 
other,  as  above,  below,  on  this  side  or  that  side,  etc. 
The  teacher  should  represent  the  positions  of  these 


POINTS  OF  COMPASS.  251 

objects  on  the  board  and  request  the  pupils  to  copy 
the  representations  on  their  slates.  These  exercises 
will  prepare  them  to  appreciate  the  value  of  a  map. 
Proceed  with  fixed  divisions  of  space.  Make  clear 
the  limits  and  form  of  its  boundaries. 

Study  the  position  of  objects  and  places  in  regard 
to  absolute  and  relative  distances.  Make  the  school 
room  the  first  division  of  space.  Map  with  accuracy 
all  the  things  learned,  and  have  the  pupils  reproduce 
the  representations. 

Third  Step. 

HI.  Give  t?w  children  a  knowledge  of  the  cardinal 
points  of  the  compass  in  their  use  in  geographical  des- 
cription. 

East  and  West. 

When  children  have  been  accustomed  to  determine 
the  relative  position  of  objects,  they  must  be  let  to 
consider  places  in  the  same  point  of  view  ;  and  to  this 
end  they  should  be  made  acquainted  with  the  use  of 
the  several  points  of  the  compass. 

Let  the  class  face  the  North.  Ask  them  to  point 
where  the  sun  rises  and  where  it  sets.  Tell  them  that 
the  place  in  the  heavens  where  it  rises  is  called  the 
East—  that  in  which  it  sets,  the  West.  Excite  them 
to  observe,  both.at  home  and  at  school,  that  the  sun 
rises  in  the  East  and  sets  in  the  West. 

Close  the  lesson  by  a  stimultaneous  repetition. 

"That  direction  in  which  the  sun  rises  is  called  the 
East ;  and  that  in  which  it  sets,  the  West." 
North  and  South. 

Commence  this  with  a  repetition  of  the  preceding 


253  GEOGRAPHY. 


one.  Call  on  the  children  to  place  themselves  with 
their  right  hand  to  the  East  and  their  left  to  tne 
West,  and  then  tell  them  that  the  point  directiy 
before  them  is  the  North,  and  that  directly  behind 
thern  the  South. 

Ask  them  to  repeat  together,  "  If  we  stand  with  our 
right  hand  to  the  East  and  our  left  hand  to  the  West, 
the  point  directly  before  us  is  the  North,  and  that 
directly  behind  us,  the  South."  Ask  the  pupils  to  face 
the  East,  the  South,  the  West  and  the  North.  Let 
the  children  place  a  stick  or  draw  a  line  with  the 
chalk  on  the  floor,  in  the  direction  of  North,  South, 
East  and  West. 

In  such  exercises  the  object  is  to  occupy  only  so 
much  time  upon  each  new  idea  as  may  suffice  lofas 
it  on  the  mind.  A  figure  should  be  drawn  on  the 
board  representing  the  compass,  or  better  still  a  small 
compass  should  be  exhibited.  The  teacher  should 
see  to  it  that  the  children  are  firm  on  one  step  of  the 
ladder  of  knowledge,  before  they  proceed  to  another, 
and  not  weary  and  disgtist  them,  by  keeping  them 
too  long  o'n  one  subject. 

Semi- Cardinal  Points. 

When  we  wish  to  represent  the  situation  of  differ- 
ent places  on  paper  or  on  a  slate,  we  call  the  top 
North,  the  bottom  South,  the  right  hand  East  and 
the  left  hand  West.  The  teacher  writes  the  four 
cardinal  points  on  the  board  But  are  things  or 
places  always  exactly  at  the  North,  the  South,  the 
East  o.'  the  West  ?  Where  may  they  be  ?  They 


POINTS  OF  COMPASS.  265 

may  be  between  any  two  of  these  points.  A  point 
half  way  between  North  and  East  is  Northeast. 
What  do  you  think  half  way  between  North  and  West 
is  called  ?  Develop  the  other  semi-cardinal  points  in 
the  same  way.  ivrill  upon  the  above  facts.  Draw  a 
square  at  the  board  and  let  the  children  mark  and 
tell  the  Cardinal  and  semi-cardinal  points. 

Draw  a  circle  on  the  board  and  mark  off  the  prin- 
cipal and  intermediate  points. 

Let  the  teacher  draw  the  outline  of  the  room  on 
the  floor  in  chalk,  and  mark  the  position  of  objects 
within  it,  and  when  a  map  of  the  room  is  substituted; 
place  it  fiist  in  a  horizontal  position. 

Let  the  pupils  place  the  different  articles  in  the 
room  along  the  northern,  the  eastern,  southern  and 
•western  boundaries 

Require  them  to  draw  the  room  according  to  the 
Bame  scale,  and  mark  the  relative  positions  of  the 
objects. 

Let  them  measure  the  length  of  the  school  room  by 
a  foot  measure  ;  see  that  it  is  correctly  clone 

Lefthe  childien  see  that  we  cannot  represent  the 
dimensions  of  the  r  >om  on  the  board  by  using  the 
scale  of  feet,  but  that  we  must  use  the  scale  of  inches. 
Now  let  one  foot  of  the  room  be  represented  by  one 
inch  on  the  slate  or  board.  If  the  room  is  twelve 
feet  long,  how  many  inches  shall  we  make  our  line 
on  the  slate?  Twelve.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner 
until  t'  e  children  obtain  a  correct  idea  oi  a  scale. 
For  example,  the  inch,  the  foot,  the  yard,  the  rod 
and  the  mile. 


354  GEOGRAPHY. 


Teach  the  location  of  streets  and  the  direction  of 
them  ;  the  public  building,  etc.  Let  the  children  see 
that  in  geography  we  need  not  say  top  and  bottom, 
right  and  left,  but  we  call  them  north,  "south,  east 
and  west.  When  you  are  in  front  of  a  globe  or  a 
map,  the  top  is  north,  the  bottom  is  south,  the  right 
hand  is  east,  and  the  left  hand  is  west. 

Fourth  Step. 

IV.  Give  instruction  and  drill  upon  geographical 
definitions. 

Land  Divisions. 

Draw  an  irregular  figure  on  the  board  represent- 
ing one  of  the  divisions  of  the  earth, — say,  South 
America.  In  drawing  the  coast,  (that  is,  a  rib  or 
side — the  edge  of  the  land  near  the  sea,)  make  the 
projections  and  indentations  prominent,  so  that  we 
may  be  able  to  use  the  figure  to  give  the  children  a 
correct  idea  of  the  shape  of  land  and  water  divisions. 
The  larger  figure  will  represent  one  ot  the  mainlands 
of  the  world,  as  distinguished  from  islands,  which, 
though  large,  are  still  evidently  surrounded  by  the 
sea  ;  and  it  is  called  a  Continent. 

A  prominent  projection  of  land  from  the  coast, — 
not  quite  an  island,  not  quite  surrounded  by  the 
water, — is  called  a  Peninsula.  It  projects  from  the 
mainland  or  body,  and  generally  is  quite  narrow  at 
the  point  of  projection  and  gradually  widens. 
Where  there  is  a  Peninsula  there  ought  to  be  em 
Isthmus,  which  is  a  neck  of  land  connecting  it  with 
the  mainland. 


DIVISIONS  OF  WATER.  256 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner  to  develop  all  the 
land  divisions.  Continue  the  drill  until  all  the 
children  understand  what  is  meant  by  the  terms 
used— such  as  Continent,  Peninsula,  etc. 

Let  the  children  draw  many  figures  until  they  are 
perfectly  familiar  with  all  the  land  divisions. 

Water  Divisions. 

Let  the  children  see  that  all  the  water  of  the  earth 
belongs  to  one  great  ocean,  sometimes  called  the  sea. 
Tell  them  that  the  ocean  is  the  largest  body  of  water. 
Talk  to  them  about  the  extent  of  the  ocean,  what  is 
found  within  its  waters,  and  the  great  thoroughfares 
of  commerce. 

Gulf  and  Bay. 

Draw  a  figure  with  a  prominent  indentation  in  the 
coast,  and  let  the  children  see  that  a  recess  in  the 
coast  is  called  a  Gulf  and  Bay.  The  gulf  is  usually 
the  narrower  and  deeper,  and  the  bay  broader  and 
more  open  of  the  two.  In  fact,  the  words  are  used 
without  exactness  of  distinction. 

A  narrow  passage  of  water  between  two  continents, 
not  very  deep,  is  called  a  Strait.  A  Sound  is  also  a 
narrow  passage  of  water  between  two  continents  or 
islands,  but  much  deeper.  All  of  the  water  divisions 
may  be  represented  on  the  board  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  convey  very  correct  impressions.  Develop  all 
the  terms  in  the  same  manner. 

The  teacher  should  not  be  content  until  these  terms 
are  thoroughly  understood  and  mastered.  The  object 
of  them  all  is  to  teach  the  pupils  about  the  earth, 
and  they  are  of  no  use  if  they  do  not  do  that.  Get  the 


256  GEOGRAPHY. 

pupils  into  the  nabit  of  looking  at  the  country  itself, 
finding  out  all  the  ideas  they  can  and  •what  they  all 

mean. 

Begin  at  Home.  . 

The  most  important  spot  for  us  all  in  this  and 
many  other  respects  is  our  homes.  What  sort  of  a 
country  is  it  ?  What  about  its  hills  and  mountains ; 
its  valleys  and  plains  ;  its  resources  and  thorough- 
fares? Can  you  answer  all  these  questions?  It  is 
that  sort  of  inquiry,  begun  at  your  own  home  and 
gradually  inclining  to  other  countries  and  scenes  till 
you  know  all  about  them,  which  is  the  useful  part  of 
that  great  science  of  man  and  nature  of  which  Geog- 
raphy is  an  important  part.  There  is  uo  subject 
which  unites  you  to  a  higher,  happier  life,  than 
Geography  Keep  your  eyes  open,  and  you  will  see 
something  to  study  every  day  of  your  life. 

How  to  Teach  Geograpy. 

instruction  in  Geography  embraces  two  depart- 
ments, viz  :  Primary  and  Advanced. 

Primary  Geography  should  be  strictly  objective; 
Advanced  must  of  necessity  be  subjective. 

Objective  instruction  operates  on  objects  present 
to  the  senses,  perceiving  in  them  certain  principles 
and  relations,  and  gradually  realizing  that  the  princi- 
ples herein  perceived  are  common  to  all  objects  of 
the  same  kind 

This  involves  conception,  generalization,  aud 
finally'abstraction,-  tin-  -  the  law  of  development. 

I.  Teach  directk  <\,  •  I  apply  it  to  the  school 
house  and  immediate  surroundings. 


GENERAL  DIRECTIONS.  257 

IL  Teach  dimensions,  especially  in  the  smaller 
denominations,  with  frequent  tests.  Direction  and 
dimensions  are  essential  to  conception  of  space  and 
distances  in  space. 

III.  Proceed  with  fixed  divisions  of  space.     Make 
clear  the  form  of  its  boundaries. 

Study  the  position  of  things  within  the  space  in 
regard  to  distances  and  directions.  Make  the  school 
room  the  first  division  of  space.  Map  with  accuracy- 
all  the  things  learned  ;  have  the  pupils  reproduce  the 
maps. 

IV.  Take  the  school-house  grounds  as  the  second 
division  of  space  and  apply  the  preceding  principles  ; 
thence  in  succession  the  district,  the  township,  the 
county,  the  State,  the  nation,  the  world. 

V.  Study  the  vegetation,  the  animals,  and  the  min- 
erals of  the  smaller  spaces.    Give  names  and  uses, 
distinguishing  the  wild  animals  and  vegetation  from 
those  which  are  cultivated. 

VI.  Study  the  occupations  and  the  trades  of  the 
people. 

VII.  Study  the  manufactures  and  the  forces  em- 
ployed in  driving  the  machinery. 

VIII.  Study  the  commerce  and  the  transportation. 
IX.'Study  the  social,  religious  and  political  organ- 
izations. 

The  above  may  be  all  taught  objectively  ;  for  ex- 
amples of  them  come  within  the  perception  of  every 
ordinary  child,  if  he  be  but  taught  to  use  it. 

This  local  geography  should  be  exhausted  before 
undertaking  the  general  study  of  the  world  ;  it  gives 
the  basis  of  understanding  the  subjective  treatment. 


258  GEOGRAPHY. 


Advanced  Geography. 

I.  Study  the  form,  size  and  position  of  the  earth. 

II.  Study  its  surface  in  respect  to  land  and  watei 
and  their  relations. 

III.  In  studying  particular  divisions  pursue  a  nat- 
ural order,  viz ;  outlines,  surface,  climate,  vegetation, 
minerals,  animals,  nations. 

General  Cantion. 

The  geography  of  the  common  school  is  not  true 
geography  ;  it  is  a  miserable  hotch-potch  of  insignifi- 
cant fragments,  and  is  utterly  unworthy  the  great 
name  it  bears  and  the  time  it  occupies.  Gigantic 
facts,  magnificent  generalizations,  splendid  specula- 
tions, involving,  as  they  do,  the  mightiest  problems 
in  several  of  the  other  sciences,  are  certainly  not  fit- 
ting food  for  little  children's  minds.  Their  imagina- 
tions are  confounded  at  its  first  propositions.  The 
huge  round  world,  swinging  unsupported  in  limited 
space,  and  wheeling  with  an  inconceivable  velocity 
along  its  trackless  orbit,  parcelled  into  vast  expanses 
of  continent  and  still  vaster  oceans,  and  peopled  with 
a  billion  of  human  beings,  what  a  conception  is  this  to 
offer  to  a  little  child  !  Picture  it,  explain,  illustrate 
it  as  we  will,  it  still  remains  a  great  mystery  of  which 
nothing  is  learned  but  the  vaguest  ideas.  Nor  are 
Us  later  problems  less  difficult  than  these  first  and 
fundamental  notions.  The  alternations  of  day  and 
night,  with  their  varying  lengths  in  different  latitudes 
and  different  seasons  ;  the  variety  and  succession  of 
the  season  and  their  relation  to  climate  ;  the  preces- 
sion of  the  equinoxes  ;  the  movements  of  the  tides  • 


MAP-DBA  WING.  390 

the  flow  of  the  oceanic  currents  ;  the  sweep  of  the 
winds  ;  the  great  laws  of  climate  ;  the  geographical 
distribution  of  plants  and  animals,  and  the  migra- 
tions and  varying  civilizations  of  the  human  race  ; — 
these  surely  are  not  questions  for  mere  tyros  in  learn- 
ing and  novices  in  study  to  solve. 

Map-Drawing. 

Suggestions. 

1.  Begin  with  the  school-room  and  draw  a  plan  of 
it  on  the  board. 

2.  Draw  around  it  the  plan  of  the  yard. 

3.  Let  the  children  measure  the  dimensions  of  the 
.   room  and  the  yard  and  draw  the  plan  to  various 

scales. 

4.  Draw  a  map  of  the  neighborhood,  village,  city, 
etc. 

5.  Let    the    pupils  indicate   the  various    streets, 
public  buildings,  etc. 

7.   GIVE  THOROUGH  DRILL. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

Introductory. 

Advanced  Geography  enables  us  to  give  some  cul- 
ture to  the  understanding.  Facts  have  to  be  classified, 
generalizations  to  be  made,  laws  to  be  discovered  and 
the  connection  of  causes  and  effects  to  be  established. 
It  is  now  clearly  understood  that  the  most  profitable 
way  of  teaching  the  geography  of  a  country  is  to  take 
up  its  physical  features  first,  and  then  the  facts  which 


400 


depend  upon  them.  To  be  made  acquainted  with  the 
physical  features  of  a  country  is  as  necessary  to  a 
geographer  as  the  knowledge  of  the  bones  and  great 
blood  vessels  of  the  human  frame  is  to  the  anatomist. 
One  in  order  to  understand  the  real  geography  of  a 
country, — its  organic  structure,  if  I  may  so  call  it,  the 
form  of  its  skeleton — that  is,  of  its  hills  ;  ihe  magni- 
tude and  course  of  its  veins  and  arteries, — that  is,  of 
its  streams  and  rivers  ; — should  conceive  it  as  a  whole 
made  up  of  connected  parts ;  and  then  the  position  of 
man's  dwellings,  viewed  in  reference  to  these  parts, 
becomes  at  once  easily  remembered,  lively,  and 
intelligible  besides. 

The  use  of  the  blackboard  in  teaching  geography 
is  now  general.  Us  relation  to  the  use  of  maps  is 
better  understood  than  it  was.  It  furnishes  the  means 
of  exhibiting  any  portion  of  a  map  on  a  larger  scale, 
and  bringing  out  prominently  any  feature  that  may 
be  required  —  maps  often  confusing  because  so 
crowded. 

By  means  of  colored  chalk,  the  separate  classes  of 
facts  may  be  kept  distinct  and  their  relation  more 
cleariy  shown.  All  facts  presented  to  the  eye  are 
impressed  on  the  mind.  "The  faithful  sight  en- 
graves the  knowledge  with  a  beam  of  light." 

In  the  treatment  of  this  subject,  Physical  and  Poli- 
tical Geography  will  be  associated  as  inseparable— as 
one  subject — with  this  fact  overlooked  geography  be- 
comes a  mass  of  meaningless  details,  without  either 
cause  or  correlation,  while  its  study  degenerates  into 
mere  rote  work. 


GENERAL  FEATURES. 


Study  of  North   America. 
/.  Position. 

1.  North  America  is  in  the  "Western  Hemisphere. 

2.  It  is  the  Northern  Grand  Division. 
8.  It  is  found  in  the  New  World. 

II.  Extent. 

1.  It  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  almost  to  the 
Equator. 

2.  It  is  about  4,800  miles  in  length. 

3.  It  is  about  3,000  miles  in  width. 

4.  Area  in  square  miles  8,929,660. 

5.  Comparative  size  —  It  is  double   the  size  of 
Europe,  but  only  one-half  as  large  as  Asia. 

///.  Fwm. 
1.  In  form  this  Grand  Division  is  triangular. 

IV.  Outline. 

1.  Its  outline  is  irregrlar. 

2.  The  projections  and  indentations  are  prominent 

3.  The  Northern  Coast  is  the  most  irregular. 

4.  The  Atlantic  seaboard  is  much  more  indented 
by  bays  and  gulfs  than  the  Pacific  coast. 

5.  These  inbreakings  furnish  good  harbors,  and 
this  is  a  commercial  advantage. 

V.  Coast. 
NORTHERN  COAST. 

1.  The  principal  projections  from  the  Northern 
coast  are  the  Peninsulas  of  Labrador,  Melville  and 
Boothia.  The  principal  capes  are  Cape  Charles,  Cape 
Chidley,  Cape  Bathurst,  aud  Cape  Barrow. 


262         GEOGRAPHY  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

2.  The  principal  indentations  are  Hudson's  Bay, 
James  Bay,  Ungava  Bay,  and  Coronation  Gulf. 

3.  The  adjoining  islands  are  Southampton,  Fox 
Land,    Prince    William's    Land,  Prince  of    Wales, 
Prince  Albert,  Melville,  and  Grirmell's  Land. 

4.  The  commercial  advantages  are  limited. 

EASTERN  COAST. 

1.  The    principal    projections    from  the  Eastern 
coast  are  Peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia,  Cape  Cod,  Cape 
May,  Cape  Charles,  Cape  Henry,  Cape  Hatteras, 
Cape  Lookout,  Cape  Canaveral,  and  Peninsula  of 
Yucatan. 

2.  The  principal  indentations  are  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  Bay  of  Fundy,  Massachusetts  Bay,  Cape 
Cod  Bay,  Long  Island  Sound,  Narragansett  Bay, 
and  Chesapeake  Bay. 

3.  The  adjoining  islands  are  New  Foundland,  Cape 
Breton,  Martha's  Vineyard,  Nantucket,  Long  Island, 
Bermuda,  Bahama,  and  the  West  Indies. 

4.  The   commercial    advantages   are   unlimited, 
since  the  Atlantic  seaboard  lies  nearest  the  great 
markets  of  the  Old  World. 

SOUTHERN  AND  WESTERN  COAST. 

1.  The  principal  projection  from    the    Southern 
coast  is  the  Peninsula  of  Florida;    from  Western 
coast,  Corrientes,  Cape  St.  Lucas,  Peninsula  of  Cali- 
fornia,  Cape  Mendocino,    Cape    Flattery,  and  the 
Peninsula  of  Alaska. 

2.  The   principal   indentations  are  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  Bay  of  Campeche,  Bay  of  Honduras,  Gul/ 


GENERAL  FEATURES.  263 

of  California,  San  Francisco  Bay,  Gulf  of  Georgia, 
Bristol's  Bay,  and  Norton  Sound. 

3.  The  adjoining  islands  on  the  Western  coast  are 
Vancouver's,  Queen  Charlotte's,  Sitka,  Kodiak  and 
Aleutian. 

VI.  Straits. 

1.  The  straits  on  the  Northern   coast   are    Davis 
Strait,  Hudson's  Strait,  Frobisher's  Strait  and  Banks 
Strait ;  on  the  Eastern  coast,  Strait  of  Belleisle  and 
Florida  Strait ;  on  the  Western  coast,  Strait  of  Juan 
de  Fuca. 

2.  The  commercial  advantages  are  limited  ;  few 
harbors  are  found  on  the  Southern  and  Western  coast. 

VIL  Relief  , 

1.  The  vertical  configuration  of  the  continent  or 
island — that  is,  its  elevation  as  a  whole — varied  by 
plains,  table  lands,  mountains  and  valley,  is  called 
its  relief. 

The  relief  may  be  said  to  consist  of  elevations  and 
depressions. 

The  fornjs  of  relief  are  exceedingly  varied  ;  the 
elevations  when  they  reach  or  exceed  1000  feet  are 
called  plateaus  or  table  lands ;  when  less  than  1000 
feet,  are  called  plains  or  low  lands  ;  the  term  hill  is 
applied  to  ridges  less  than  2000  feet  in  elevation. 

A  knowledge  of  the  reliefs  of  continents  is  of  the 
utmost  importance. 

A  difference  in  altitude  of  no  more  than  330  feet, 
is  sufficient  to  produce  a  temperature  of  one  degree, 
being  equivalent  to  a  difference  of  seventy  miles  in 
altitude. 


261         GEOGJKAPHY  01  JMRTH  AMEKICA. 

Again,  the  relief  of  a  continent  controls  its  drainage, 
shaping  the  river  basins  and  directing  the  course  of 
the  rivers,  and  influences  t:>  a  certain  extent  the 
direction  and  character  of  the  winds  and  the  distri- 
bution of  rivers. 

VIII.  Common  Features  of  Continental  Relief. 

1.  STRUCTURE  OF  CONTINENTS.— According  to  the 
theory  of  modern  geographers  there' are  six  contin- 
ents. There  are  certain  grand  features  common  to 
all — a  peculiar  combination  of  mountain  systems, 
plateaus  and  plains.  Each  continent  has  upon  one 
side  of  the  centre  a  great  mass  of  elevated  lands, 
usually  extending  throughout  its  entire  length,  and 
constituting  the  primary  feature  of  its  structure.  On 
the  opposite  side  is  found  a  similar,  though  smaller 
and  less  elevated  mass  extending  through  a  part  of 
the  continent,  and  constituting  the  secondary  feature 
of  the  continental  structure.  Between  the  primary 
and  secondary  elevations  is  a  central  depression, 
which  forms  the  third  feature  common  to  all  contin- 
ents. 

These  elevated  masses  are  sometimes  called  the 
main  axis  and  secondary  axis  of  a  continent.  There 
is  a  marked  unity  of  structure — one  common  plan 
pervading  all  the  continents.  In  each,  of  the  tw,o 
Americas,  the  main  axis  extends  through  the  entire 
length  of  the  continent.  The  main  axis  lies  near  the 
Western  shore  ;  the  secondary  axis  near  the  Eastern. 
Vast  low  plains  occupy  the  interior  ;  but  the  plains 
on  the  seaward  slope  of  the  axis  are  only  of  limited 
extent. 


MOUNTAIN  SYSTEMS.  265 

IX.  Surface  of  North  America. 

The  surface  of  North  America  is  naturally  divided 
into  five  parts :  The  Western  or  Pacific  Highland  ; 
the  Low  Central  Plain ;  The  Eastern  or  Atlantic 
Highland  ;  -and  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  Slopes. 

a.  WESTERN  OR  PACIFIC  HIGHLAND. — The  Pacific 
Highland,  or  Great  Plateau  Belt,  which  forms  the 
primary  feature  of  North  America,  occupying  al- 
most all  of  the  Western  half  of  North  America, 
extends  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Sierra 
Nevada. 

This  region  consists  of  a  vast  plateau,  surmounted 
by  two  lofty  mountain  systems,  the  Rocky  Mountains 
on  the  East  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade 
ranges  on  the  West,  with  numerous  shorter  parallel 
ranges  lying  between  them.  The  breadth  of  the 
plateau  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra 
Nevadas  is  not  less  than  600  miles,  and  the  more 
Northern  portions  have  a  breadth  of  about  300  miles  ; 
the  plateau  is  quite  low  in  the  North,  but  rises  grad- 
ually as  it  extends  to  the  South.  The  elevation  in- 
creases, through  a  succession  of  swells  and  depres- 
sions, from  800  feet  near  the  Arctic  shore  to  8,000 
feet  in  the  table-land  of  Mexico,  whence  it  decreases 
rapidly  Southward. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  form  the  main  watershed 
in  the  United  States,  and  five  of  the  largest  rivers, 
— the  Missouri,  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Colorado,  the 
Columbia  and  the  Yukon.  This  highland  includes 
the  basins  of  the  Columbia  and  the  Colorado  rivers, 
and  between  them  the  Great  Basin  of  Utah. 


266        GEOGRAPHY  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

The  Pacific  Plateau  extends  from  the  Rocky  Chain 
on  the  east  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Moun- 
tains on  the  West.  The  Eastern,  slope  is  short  and 
abrupt,  its  base  resting  upon  the  plateau,  which  is 
from  2,000  to  4000  feet  in  elevation.  The  Western 
slope  is  long  and  gentle,  descending  into  extensive 
valleys  which  are  but  little  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Low  mountains  called  the  Coast  Range  lie  between 
these  border  chains  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
Coast  Range  North  of  Cape  Flattery  is  broken  into 
a  series  of  islands. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  rise  to  a  height  of  8000  feet 
above  the  surrounding  country  ;  they  are  from  12000 
to  15000  feet  above  the  sea  level. 

1.  1.  THE  ATLANTIC  HIGHLANDS  form  the  second- 
ary feature  of  the  continent,  and  they  extend  from 
the  Northern  coast  of  Labrador  nearly  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  ;  approaching,  but  not  meeting  the  Western 
highlands  on  the  South.     This  region  consists  of  the 
plateau  of  Labrador,  with  the    Laurentide  Moun- 
tains on  the  North  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and   the 
Appalachian  System  and  the  adjacant  low  plateaus 
on  the  South. 

2.  The  Labrador  Plateau  is  about  2,000  feet  ia 
elevation,  and  the  Laurentide  Mountains  are  rarely 
above  4,000  feet. 

3.  The  Appalachian  region  is  composed  of  a  suc- 
cession of  low,  parallel  mountain  ranges,  separated 
by  long,  trough-like  valleys ;  and  a  plateau   about 
2,000  feet  high,  which  descends   gently  from  the 
crest  of  the  westernmost  range  towards  the  interior 
of  the  continent. 


GREAT  PLAINS.  '.X? 


The  average  height  of  the  mountain  chain  is  about 
3,000  feet.  The  highest  peaks  are  from.  6,000  to 
6,700  feet  in  elevation.  It  has  very  little  table-land. 

c.  1.  THE  Low  CENTRAL  PLAIN  lies  between  the 
two  highlands  of  the  continent  which,  with  but  slight 
variations  of  leve',  stretch  from  the  Arctic  shores 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  A  slight  swell  near  the  centre, 
designated  the  Height  of  Land,  separates  it  into  two 
parts,  one  descending  northward  to  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
the  other  southward  to  the  Gulf.  This  swell  which 
connects  the  Atlantic  with  the  Pacific  highlands,  is 
from  1,000  to  2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  Central  Plain  is  formed  by  the  long,  gentle  slope 
descending  eastward  from  the  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

2.  On  the  South  their  intersection  is  marked  by 
the  position  of  the  Mississippi  River.    On  the  North 
a  broad  low  swell,  approximately  parallel  with  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  extends  from  Lake  Superior  to 
the  Arctic  Shores,  separating  the  Northern  plain  into 
two  vast  basins. 

3.  The  Western  basin,  which  is  narrow  and  elon- 
gated, is  connected  with  the  Eastern  by  a  break  in 
the  dividing  swell,  through  which  the  Nelson  River 
flows  to  Hudson  Bay.    The  Eastern  basin,  which  is 
more  expanded,  is  partly  below  the  level  of  the  sea 
and  covered  by  the  waters  of  Hudson  Bay. 

4.  A  series  of  remarkable  depressions,  occupied  by 
the  great  lakes  of  the  Mackenzie  and  Saskatchewan 
river  systems. — Great  Bear,  Great  Slave,  Athabasca, 
and  Winnepeg — marks  the  intersection  of  the  north- 
ern swell  with  the  slope  from  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


268        GHO&RAPHY  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

5.  On  the  Height  of  Land,  near  its  junction  with 
the  northern  swell,  are  three  vast  depressions,  diverg- 
»ng  from  a  common  centre,  with  a  depth  reaching 
considerably  below  the  level  of  the  sea.     These  are 
filled  by  the  waters  of  the  great   lakes— Superior, 
Michigan  and  Huron. 

Similar,  though  less  extensive,  basins  in  the  St. 
Lawrence  valley  are  occupied  by  lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario. 

6.  The   Central  Plain  consists  of  two  immense 
slopes, — the  Northern  being  the  Arctic  Plain,  the 
Southern  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

7.  The  Mississippi  Valley  occupies  one-half  of  the 
entire  area  of  the  United  States.     The  surface  is  un- 
dulating; parts  are  hilly;  on  the  whole,  the  surface  is 
that  of  a  plain,  with  slopes  toward  the  centre  from 
off  the  two  highland  regions  and  a  general  slope  from 
the  height  of  land  Southward  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

•  8.  -The  Plains. — The  name  of  the  Plains  is  given 
to  a  section  of  the  country  extending  a  considerable 
distance  to  the  Eastward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
It  may  be  called  a  sloping  plateau  ;  there  is  no  well 
defined  limit  at  which  the  name  of  plateau  must  be 
exchanged  for  that  of  a  plain 

d.  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE  extends  from  the  crest  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascade  Ranges  westward  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean.     Its  average  width  is  about  150 
miles.     Between  these  ranges  and  some  lower  eleva- 
tions along  the  coast  is  enclosed  the  great  California 
Valley. 

e.  THE  ATI-ANTIC  SLOPE  extend*  from  the  Alle- 


GENERAL  FEATURES.  261* 


ghany  Mountains  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  varies  in 
width  according  as  the  mountains  approach  or  recede 
from  the  sea  coast.  Upon  the  New  England  coast 
of  the  United  States  it  is  about  50  miles  in  width  ;  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River,  it  varies  to  a  mere 
strip  of  coast ;  it  broadens  southward  to  a  width  of 
300  mi\es. 

The  teacher  should  take  up  the  rivers,  lakes, 
climate,  etc. ,  as  the  next  subject  in  order  for  study, 
based  upon  the  following  order,  viz  : 

X,  Rivers. 

1.  Classification  by  river-systems. 

2.  Description  of  particular  rivers. 

a.  Length  and  size. 

b.  Availability  for  navigation. 
f.  Availability  for  water-power. 

3.  (Rivers  of  the  particular  locality.) 

XL  Lakes. 

1.  Description. 

2.  Uses. 

a.  As  yielding  fish. 

b.  For  navigation. 

XII.  Climate. 

1.  As  determined  by  latitude. 
2  As   modified   by   particular 'causes,— altitude, 
proximity  to  the  sea  or  the  great  lakes,  winds,  etc. 

3.  (At  the  home  of  the  pupil, — local  geography.) 

XIII.  Natural  Advantages. 
1.  (At  the  home  of  the  pupil, — local  geography.) 


270        GEOGRAPHY  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

2.  On  the  surf  ape  of  the  earth. 

a.  Nature  of  the  soil  with  reference  to  agricul- 

ture. 

b.  Forests,  — nature  and  uses  of  the  woods. 

e.  Facilities  for  transportation  afforded  by  the 
sea,  rivers,  lakes,  etc. 

3.  Within  the  earth. 

a.  Useful  minerals  and  metals — as  coal,  build- 

ing material,  iron,  copper,  lead,  etc. 

b.  Precious  metals, — as  gold  and  silver. 

4.  In  the  waters. 

a.  Sea-fisheries. 

b.  Lake  and  river  fisheries. 

X/F.  Industries,  or  Occupations. 

1.  Agriculture. 

a.  Relative  importance  among  the  industrial 

of  the  State. 

b.  The  crops  raised. 
e.  Statistics  of  crops. 

d.  Cattle,  sheep  and  hog  raising. 

2.  Manufacturing. 

a.  Relative  importance. 

b.  Articles  produced. 

e.  Statistics  of  manufactures. 

3.  Mining.  * 

a.  Metals  or  minerals  found. 

b.  Mines,  to  what  extent  worked. 

4.  Lumbering. 

a.  Locality  of  the  forests. 

b.  Description  of  the  method. 


BLACKBOARD  TABULATION.  871 

6.  The  Fisheries.  . 

a,  Locality  of  the  fisheries. 

b.  Kinds  of  fish  taken. 
6.  Commerce. 

a.  What  is  exported. 

b.  What  is  imported. 

c.  Means  of  transportation. 

XV.  Internal  Improvement*. 

1.  Railroads. 

a.  Local  railroads. 

b.  Trunk-lines. 

2.  Canals. 

3.  Navigation  on  lakes  and  rivers. 

Blackboard  Tabulation  of  the  Relief. 

North  America. 

fl.  The  Plain. 
I  2.  Rocky  Mountains. 
I  3.  Pacific  Plateau. 

I.  Western  Highlands.  •{  4.  Cascade  Range. 
5.  Sierra  Nevada. 

Coast  Range, 
.7.  Pacific  Slope. 

f  1.  Atlantic  Slope. 
2.  Appalachian  System. 
H.  Eastern  Highland,    S;WefmgS,op, 

5.  Plateau  of  Labrador. 
[6.  Laurentide  Mountains. 

in  Central  Plain  .{ 1>  Northern  Slope,  Arctic  Plain. 
™m>  \  2.  Southern  Slope,  Miss.  Slope. 


.     272       GEOGRAPHY  OF  NE  W  YORK  STA  TE. 

IV.  Height  of  Land. 

After  this  subject  has  been  taught  objectively  and 
fully  illustrated,  the  above  tabulation  should  appear 
on  the  board  and  the  pupils  be  required  to  recite 
topically. 

The  pupils  should  name  every  important  item  con- 
nected with  the  relief,  and  the  teacher  should  require 
the  pupils  to  write  a  composition,  using  the  tabula- 
tion as  an  outline. 

It  is  expected  that  after  the  subject  is  taught 
objectively  all  the  divisions  will  be  tabulated  in  a 
similar  manner. 


NEW  YORK  STATE. 
Special  Study. 

/.  Position  of  the  State. 

1.  It  is  situated  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
two  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

Its  land  boundaries,  separating  it  from  Pennsyl- 
vania,  New  Jersey,  New  England  and  Canada  are 
straight  lines,  and  constitute  nearly  one-third  of  the 
entire  boundary  of  the  State.  Their  total  length  is 
541  miles.  The  remaining  boundaries,  879  miles  in 
.ength,  are  all  navigable  waters,  except  17  miles  on 
Poultney  river.  They  include  852  miles  on  Lakes 
Erie,  Ontario  and  Champlain  ;  281  miles  on  Rivers 
Niagara,  St.  Lawrence,  Poultney,  Hudson,  Kill  van 
Hull  and  Delaware,  and  246  miles  on  Long  Island . 
Sound  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Boundaries  of  the  State  :— It  is  bounded  on  the 


POSITION  AND  OUTUNE.  273 

North  by  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  Vermont  and 
Connecticut ;  on  the  East  by  Vermont,  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  on  the  South 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  New  Jersey  and  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  on  the  West  by  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

II.   Outline. 

The  form  of  the  State  is  very  irregular. 
///  Extent. 

1.  Its  area  is  47,000  square  miles. 

2.  Its  population  is  4,098,958. 

3.  Its  extreme  length  is  330  miles,  exclusive  of 
Long  Island,  the  length  of  which  is  120  miles. 

Its  extreme  breadth,  from  the  Canada  line  to  the 
South  point  of  Staten  Island,  is  312  miles. 

•»        IV.  Coast. 

1.  It  has  but  a  little  sea-coast,  and  this  is  found  in 
the  South-eastern  portion  of  the  State,  containing  one 
of  the  best  harbors  in  the  world. 

2.  It  has  an  extensive  lake  coast  on  its  Western, 
Northern  and  Eastern  portions,  containing  many  har- 
bors. 

3.  There  are  no  prominent  projections  of  penin- 
sulas or  capes  from  this  State,  but  indentations  are 
frequent  on  the  lake  coasts,  forming  excellent  har- 
bors. 

Harbors. 

New  York  Bay,  lying  South  of  Manhattan  Island, 
between  Long  Island  and  Staten  Island,  affords  an 


274       GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATE. 

excellent  harbor  ;  on  Lake  Erie  are  two  harbors  at 
Buffalo  and  Dunkirk  ;  on  Niagara  River  are  two  har- 
bors at  Tonawanda  and  Lewiston  ;  on  Lake  Ontario 
are  fine  harbors  at  Genesee,  Sodus,  Oswego,  Sackett's 
Harbor  and  Cape  Vincent ;  on  the  St.  Lawrence  is 
one  harbor  at  Ogdensburg  ;  on  Lake  Champlain  are 
four  harbors  at  Rouse's  Point,  Plattsburg,  Port  Henry 
and  Whitehall ;  Sagg  Harbor  is  on  the  Eastern  part 
of  Long  Island. 

Adjoining  Islands. 

The  islands  adjoining  the  North-eastern  portion  of 
the  State  are  Manhattan,  Staten,  Long,  Governor's, 
Bedlow's,  Ellis— the  three  last  belong  to  the  United 
States.  Black  well's,  Randall's,  Ward's,  Hart's, 
Fisher's,  Plum,  Gardner's,  and  Shelter  Islands  are 
found  in  the  East  River  and  Long  Island  Sound. 
New  York  city,  situated  on  Mahattan  Island, 
contains  two  United  States  Forts  ;  and  Bedlow's  and 
Ellis  Islands  are  used  for  store-houses  of  amunition. 
Forts  are  located  upon  either  side  ot  New  York 
Bay  on  Long  Island  and  Staten  Island. 

The  islands  in  Lake  Champlain  are  Valcour,  Crab, 
Bchuyler,  North  Hero  and  South  Hero. 

The  principal  islands  in  the  Northern  St.  Lawrence 
we  Carlton,  Grenadier,  Fox,  Mills  and  Grindstone. 

The  Thousand  Islands  are  in  the  Southern  part, 
near  the  source  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 

The  principal  islands  in  the  Niagara  are  the  Grand, 
Squaw,  Strawberry,  Rattlesnake,  Tonawanda,  Bearer 
and  Goat. 


COAST  AND  SURFACE.  278 

F.  Surface. 

The  greater  part  of  the  State  lies  in  the  Eastern 
Highland,  and  has  a  very  diversified  surface. 

The  North-eastern  and  Eastern  parts  are  moun- 
tainous; the  Southern  part  undulating.  It  has  a 
wonderfully  varied  surface.  Its  higti  and  wooded 
mountain  ranges,  its  extensive  valleys  and  broad 
plateaus,  its  many  beautiful  lakes,  water  courses, 
cascades  and  rapids,  and  its  vast  extent  of  highly 
fertile  soil,  render  it  one  of  the  most  important  por- 
tions of  the  American  continent. 

Long  Island  is  mostly  a  low  and  level  sandy  plain, 
broken  in  the  Northern  part  by  low  hills  of  sand  and 

gravel. 

Adirondack   System* 

1.  The  North-eastern  portion  is  covered  by  the 
Adirondack  System,  which  are  the  highest  and  most 
rugged  in  the  State,  and  consist  of  a  number  of 
nearly  parallel  ranges,  having  many  interlocking 
spurs.  They  extend  from  the  North-east  to  the 
South-west,  and  are  composed  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
Chateaugay,  Ausable  and  Clinton  ranges.  The 
highest  peaks  are  found  in  the  Ausable  range; 
Mount  Marcy  5402  feet  in  height ;  Mclntyre  5201 ; 
Gothic  5000 ;  Dix  4816 ;  and  Seward  4284  feet. 

Highlands. 

1.  Lying  in  the  same  general  direction  as  the 
Appalachain  System,  are  the  rugged  and  torest-clad 
Highlands,  consisting  of  several  nearly  parallel 
mountain  chains,  which  extend  across  the  Hudson 


276       QEO  ORAPHY  OF  NE  W  YORK  S  TA  TE. 

into  the  Eastern  portion  of  the  State.  The  High- 
lands  are  a  continuation  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  which, 
after  crossing  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  ends  in 
the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire. The  Catsbergs  and  Hildei  bergs  are  continua- 
tions of  the  westward  ranges  of  the  Alleghanies. 
The  highest  peaks  of  Ihe  Highlands  are  Butter  Hill, 
Crow's  Nest  and  Bear  Mountain  ;  these  are  in  Orauge 
County.  Bull  Hill,  Anthony's  Ncse  and 'Breakneck 
are  in  Putnam  County;  and  Beacon  Hill  in  Dutches* 

County. 

Shawangunk  Mountains. 

North  and  West  of  the  Highlands  are  the  Shawan- 
gunk Mountains,  a  continuation  of  the  Blue  or 
Kittatinny.  This  long  and  broken  crest,  2000  feet 
high,  is  separated  from  the  Highlands,  by  a  broad 
undulating  valley,  which  is  an  extension  of  that 
known  in  Pennsylvania  as  the  Cumberland  Valley. 
Catskill  Mountains. 

North  of  the  Shawangunk  Mountains  are  the  Cats- 
kill,  the  highest  in  this  portion  of  the  State.  They 
are  broken  into  many  peaks,  the  highest  having  an 
altitude  of  nbout  2800  feet. 

The  mountains  of  this  region  all  belong  to  the 
great  Appalachain  System  ;  the  chain  is  made  up  of 
a  succession  of  ridges,  whose  prevailing  course  is 
parallel  with  each  other  and  with  the  general  coast 
line  of  the  continent. 

The  general  character  of  the  Appalachain  range 
in  New  York  is  a  gradual  change  from  mountains 
to  hills,  which  finally  sink  away  in  the  low  lands  of 
the  great  St,  Lawrence  basin. 


MOUNTAINS.  277 


To  the  West  and  North  of  the  Shawangunk  the 
Catskills  are  piled  up,  one  upon  another,  in  sublime 
majesty — the  whole  view  being  unsurpassed  in  the 
grandeur  and  sublimity  of  its  character.  Fi:m  li«e 
Summit  of  Overlook  Mountain  more  than  250  peaks 
of  the  Catskill  range  may  be  seen,  including  Round 
Top,  Black  Head,  Table  Mountain,  Peak  Amoose,  or 
Slide  Mountain,  Eobauniberg,  High'  Point  and  Mt. 
Tobias. 

Three  distinct  ranges  or  collections  of  parallel 
ridges  pass  through  New  York  State,  from  South- 
west to  North-east. 

.  The  first  or  most  easterly  of  these  is  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  great  Blue  Ridge  of  Virginia,  Mary- 
land, and  Pennsylvania,  the  main  portion  of  which, 
passing  through  the  North-western  corner  of  New 
Jersey,  forms  the  Shawangunk  Mountain,  which, 
extending  between  Sullivan  and  Orange  counties, 
strikes  the  Hudson  in  the  southern  part  of  Ulster 
county.  South-east  of  this  long  ridge  a  succession 
of  smaller  ridges  run  parallel  with  it,  some  of  which 
cross  Orange  and  Rockland  into  Putnam  and 
Dutchess  counties,  east  of  the  river.  The  gap 
through  which  the  Hudson  flows  is  across  these 
smaller  ridges,  whose  highest  summits  rise  to  heights 
varying  from  one  thousand  to  seventeen  hundred 
ieet  above  tide-water.  The  Taghanic  and  Green 
Mountains  of  Western  Massachusetts  and  Vermont . 
are  probably  prolongations  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  Thia 
range  culminates  in  the  Highlands  upon  the  Hudson. 
The  highest  peaks  are  1,000  to  1,700  feet  above  tide. 


278       GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STA  TE. 

The  mountains  are  rocky  and  precipitous,  and  unfit 
for  cultivation. 

The  second  series  of  these  ridges  enters  the  State 
from  Pennsylvania,  and  extending  through  Sullivan, 
Ulster  and  Green  counties,  terminates  in  the  beauti- 
ful Catskills,  a  short  distance  west  of  the  Hudson. 
Its  highest  peaks  are  from  3,000  to  3,800  feet 
above  tide.  Helderbergs  are  spurs  from  this  series. 
Their  summits  are  generally  covered  with  old  red 
sandstone. 

The  third  series  passing  through  Broome,  Dela- 
ware, Otsego,  Schoharie,  Montgomery,  and  Herki- 
mer  counties,  reappears  beyond  the  Mohawk,  and 
there  constitutes  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  among 
whose  summits  the  Hudson  finds  its  source.  The 
culmination  of  the  whole  Adirondack  System  is  Mt. 

Marcy. 

Palisades. 

In  the  South  eastern  part  of  the  State,  are  found 
the  picturesque  Palisades  whose  left  perpendicular 
walls  of  gray  rock  begin  in  New  Jersey,  opposite 
Manhattan  Island,  and  border  the  Hudson  for  about 
20  miles. 

A  Height  of  Land  extends  from  the  central  part 
westward,  bordering  on  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  waters  of  this  lake  once  extended  to 
this  ridge. 

Valleys. 

The  State  abounds  in  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys. 
The  long  and  low  valleys  of  the  Hudson  and  the 
Mohawk  meet  almost  at  right  angles  near  the  mid- 


VALLEYS.  279 

die  of  the  Eastern  boundary,  and  divide  the  State 
into  three  distinct  sections,  each  having  marked 
peculiarities. 

In  the  Southern  part  of  the  State  are  found  the 
valleys  of  Delaware,  Susquehanna  and  Chemung ; 
in  the  Western,  the  beautiful  valley  of  Genesee. 
The  greater  part  of  the  State  West  of  the  Catskill 
and  Shawangunk  Mountains  is  a  broad  plateau, 
highest  in  the  southwest. 

The  southern  part  of  the  region  is  drained  by  the 
numerous  branches  of  the  Susquehanna,  Alleghany 
and  Delaware  ;  the  Northern  portion  by  streams 
flowing  into  Lake  Ontario.  All  of  these  have  cut 
long  and  deep  valleys  and  gorges  across  the  plateau. 
South  of  the  line  of  water-shed  between  the  two 
sets  of  streams  the  plateau  is  for  the  most  part 
covered  with  hills,  the  highest  in  Cattaraugus  and 
Chautauqua  counties,  having  an  altitude  of  2,500  feet 
above  the  sea. 

North  of  the  water-shed  a  beautiful  rolling  coun- 
try descends  in  a  series  of  broad  terraces  to  a  low 
and  level  belt  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario. 

The  most  remarkable  features  of  the  terrace  region 
are  the  transverse  valleys  extending  from  South  to 
North. 

In  the  Northern  part  of  the  State  are  found  the 
valleys  of  Lake  Champlain  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 

Direction  of  Slopes. 

In  the  Northeast  the  slope  of  the  land  is  towards 
Lake  Champlain.  ^  In  the  East  towards  the  Hudson 
and  the  Mohawk*  valleys.  In  the  South  towards 


«80      GEOGRAPHY  Of  NEW  YORK  STATE. 

Pennsylvania.  In  the  "West  towards  Lake  Erie 
and  the  River  Niagara.  In  the  North  towards  Lake 
Ontario  and  the  River  St.  Lawrence. 

VI.  Rivers. 
1.  Classification  of  river-systems. 

St.  Lawrence  System. 

The  Western  slope  of  the  Adirondacks  gives  rise 
to  various  small  rivers  called  the  St.  Lawrence  System 
The  rivers  constituting  this  system  are  the  Oswegat- 
chie,  Grass,  Racket,  St  Regis.  Salmon  and  Black; 
the  last  flowing  into  lake  Ontario,  the  others  into 
the  river  St.  Lawrence. 

Lake  System. 

A  secondary  water-shed  is  formed  by  a  Height  of 
Land  between  and  to  the  North  of  the  head-stream 
of  the  Susquehanna,  which  rises  in  Otsego  Lake, 
and  the  head-stream  of  the  Alleghany,  which,  turns 
northward  into  New  York.  This  height  of  Land 
forms  the  "divide"  between  the  streams  flowing 
northward  into  Lake  Onatrio  and  westward  into 
Lake  Erie,  southward  into  Pennsylvania,  and  east- 
ward into  the  Hudson  river. 

The  rivers  constituting  the  Lake  System  are :  The 
Tonawanda,  Buffalo  and  Cattaraugus,  which  flow 
into  Lake  Erie  and  Niagara  River  ;  and  the  Genesee 
and  Oswego  which  flow  into  Lake  Ontario.  The 
latter  is  the  outlet  of  a  scries  of  lakes  in  Central 
New  York. 

Southern  System. 

The  rivers  constituting  the  Southern  System  are 


RIVER  SYSTEMS.  281 


the  Delaware,  which  receives  the  waters  of  the 
Popacton  and  the  Neversink  upon  the  East;  the 
Susquehanna  which  receives  the  waters  of  the 
Unadilla  creek  and  the  Chenango  on  the  .North,  and 
on  the  West  the  ChemiiDg,  which  receives  the  waters 
of  the  Conhocton  on  the  North  and  the  Tioga  on 
the  South  ;  and  the  Alkghany  which  discharges  its 
waters  into  the  Ohio. 

Hudson  River  System. 

The  rivers  constituting  this  system  are  the  Schroon, 
Battenkill,  Hoosic  aud  Croton,  Eastern  tributaries 
to  the  Hudson  ;  and  the  Walkill,  Rondout,  Sacon- 
daga  and  Mohawk,  Western  tributaries  to  the  latter 
river ;  West  Canada  Creek  is  the  Northern  tributary 
of  the  Mohawk  and  Schoharie  the  Southern. 

The  Ausable  and  the  Saranac  rivers  discharge  their 
waters  into  Lake  Champlain. 

»Zf.  Description  of  particular  rivers. 
The  Hudson  River. 

The  Hudson  has  its  most  remote  sources  among, 
the  highest  peaks  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains, 
4,000  feet  above  tide-water.  Its  numerous  upper 
branches  unite  and  thence  follow  a  southerly  course, 
broken  by  numerous  falls  and  rapids,  to  Troy,  where 
it  meets  tide-water.  The  remaining  150  miles  are 
navigable  by  large  steamers  and  coasting  crafts. 
Ships  can  ascend  to  Hudson. 

The  length "  of  the  Hudson  is  800  miles.  Among 
the  streams  which  drain  the  great  Atlantic  slope, 
none  is  more  attractive  than  the  noble  river  at  whose 


282      GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATE. 

mouth  stands  the   Empire   City   of  the   "Western 

World. 

Snsqnehanna  River. 

Its  length  is  400  miles;  it  rises  in  Otsego  Lake, 
flows  in  a  winding  course  South  into  Chesapeake 
Bay.  In  size  it  is  one  of  the  principal  rivers  of  the 
State,  but  it  is  too  shallow  and  too  rapid  in  its  fall  to- 
be  of  much  advantage  for  navigation. 

Genesee  River. 

The  Genesee  River  is  110  miles  in  length  ;  it  rises 
in  the  Northern  part  of  Pennsylvania  and  flows 
North  into  Lake  Ontario.  It  has  washed  out  deep 
gorges  and  contains  five  water-falls  ;  on  the  upper 
Genesee  are  three  cataracts  of  60,  90,  110  feet,  called 
Portage  Falls  ;  on  the  lower  two  cataracts.  The 
Genesee  Falls  at  Rochester  are  96  feet  high,  besides 
the  rapids  above  and  a  broken  fall  of  84  feet  but 
a  few  miles  below. 

The  Genesee  River  is  navigable  for  7  miles,  from 
Its  mouth  to  the  Lower  Falls.  It  passes  through 
one  of  the  most  fertile  valleys  in  Western  New 

York. 

Niagara  River. 

The  Niagara  River  forms  the  Western  physical 
boundary  of  New  York  State,  and  is  40  miles  in 
length.  The  cataract  of  Niagara  is  the  grandest  and 
most  celebrated  water-fall  in  the  world.  Niagara 
River,  which  receives  the  drainage  of  four  of  the 
great  lakes,  and  is  from  two  to  three  miles  wide 
immediately  below  Grand  Island,  here  becomes  very 
much  narrower. 


RIVERS.  88» 

It  rushes  with  great  rapidity  over  its  rocky  bed, 
falling  52  feet  in  about  a  mile,  and  presents  a  vast 
expanse  of  wildly  tossing  waters,  its  surface  every- 
where lashed  into  foam. 

At  the  lower  edge  of  these  rapids  the  river  is  divid- 
ed by  Goat  Island,  and  leaps  in  two  broad  sheet* 
over  the  precipice,  falling  with  a  thundering  sound 
into  the  chasm  below. 

The  smaller,  or  American  Fall,  is  164  feet  high ; 
the  Canadian  or  horseshoe  Fall,  is  about  150  feet. 

The  Gorge,  seven  miles  in  length,  is  as  wonderful 
as  the  cataract  itself.  Its  width  varies  from  1200  to 
600  feet,  and  its  lofty  vertical  walls  distinctly  show 
that  the  falls  were  once  at  the  Northern  end  of  the 
chasm,  and  that  they  have  in  the  course  of  ages 
slowly  cut  this  deep  and  remarkable  channel  through 
the  solid  rocks. 

This  river  is  spanned  by  two  suspension  bridges;  a 
foot  bridge  at  the  Falls  and  a  carriage  and  railroad 
bridge  two  miles  below.  It  is  navigable  from  its 
mouth  to  Lewiston. 

Mohawk  River. 

The  Mohawk  River  takes  its  rise  on  the  Western 
slope  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  and  flows  south 
and  then  eastward  into  the  Hudson. 

It  has  cut  a  deep  gorge  through  or  e  of  the  spurs 
of  the  Adirondack  System  of  Mountains  at  Little 
Falls.  At  Cohoes  the  river  flows  over  a  rocky 
declivity  78  feet  in  height,  of  which  40  feet  is  a 
perpendicular  fall.  The  main  fall  is  900  feet  wide, 
and  the  banks  above  are  wild  and  precipitous. 


584      GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATE. 

In  the  Northern  tributary  of  the  Mohawk — the 
West  Canada  Creek — is  found  Trenton  Falls,  con- 
taining five  falls,  and  descending  200  feet  in  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile. 

These  Falls  are  unsurpassed  in  beauty,  and  are 
visited  by  thousands. 

Delaware  River. 

The  Delaware  River  rises  iu  the  Catskill  Moun- 
tains, flows  soutli  into  Delaware  Bay.  It  forms  a 
part  of  the  Western  boundary  of  New  York,  and  is 
navigable  to  Trenton,  75  mi'ee.  It  is  a  highway  of 
transportation  for  coal  and  iron. 

Alleghany  River. 

Rises  partly  in  Western  New  York  and  partly  in 
the  Alleghanies,  flows  Sonth-west  into  the  Ohio  ;  it 
is  the  northern  and  main  constituent  of  the  Ohio; 
navigable  to  Olean,  N.  Y  ,  260  miles. 

Seneca  Rirer. 

The  Seneca  river  takes  its  rise  in  Seneca  Lake, 
flowing  through  the  outlet  of  Cayuga  Lake,  receiving 
the  waters  of  the  Clyde  Biver,  and  discharging  its 
waters  into  the  Oswego  River. 

The  inlet  of  Lake  Oneida  is  the  Wood  River,  and 
its  outlet  is  the  Oneida  River,  which  unites  with  the 
Seneca  and  forms  the  Oswego  River. 

Harlem  River. 

Ilarlem  River  separates  Manhattan  Island  from  the 
mainland,  and  merges  into  Spuyten  Duyvil  Creekt 
Which  connects  Harlem  River  with  the  Hudson 


RIVERS.  285, 

thereby  forming  Manhattan  Island.  Through  this 
estuary,  tide-water  flows,  the  currents  meeting  at  or 
near  Kingshridge,  about  a  mile  from  the  Hudson. 

East  River. 

The  East  River  extends  from  New  York  Bay  to 
Long  Island  Sound ;  it  is  about  26  miles  in  length 
and  forms  a  part  of  the  Eastern  ^boundary  of  New 
York  city. 

Bronx  Hirer. 

This  river,  in  connection  .with  East,  forms  the 
Eastern  boundary  of  New  York  city. 

Croton  River. 

The  Croton  River  is  about  40  miles  in  length  and 
discharges  its  waters  into  the  Hudson.  This  river 
supplies  New  York  city  with  water.  The  water  ia 
carried  in  an  aqueduct  built  of  solid  masonry,  and 
follows  the  course  of  the  Hudson.  The  entire  cost 
of  the  Croton  works  at  their  completion  was  $14,- 

000,000. 

Water  Falls  and  Gorges. 

Among  the  most  noted  Water  Falls  are  Lyon'» 
Falls,  in  Black  River,  Lewis  County,  63  feet ;  High 
Falls,  in  Warren  County,  60  feet ;  Glens  Falls,  in 
Warren  County,  50  feet;  Ausable  Falls,  in  Essex 
County,  100  feet;  Buttermilk  Falls,  in  Tonawanda 
Creek,  Gtnesee  County,  90  feet;  Tagb an ic  Falls,  in 
Tompkins  County,  230  feet;  Ecfield  Falls  in  the  same 
county,  a  series  of  Cascades,  230  feet ;  Fall  Creek/ 
also  in  Tompkins,  having  five  Cascades  and  a  fall  of 
500  feet  within  a  mile  ;  Chittenango  Falls  in  Madi- 


286      GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATE. 

son  County,  136  feet ;  High  Falls,  in  Ulster  County, 
50  feet ;  and  the  Kaaterskill  Falls  in  Greene  County, 
•with  two  Cataracts,  one  of  180  and  the  other  of  89 
feet. 

In  Schuyler  County  are  found  Watkins  Glen  and 
Havana  Glen. 

In  Schoharie  County  is  found  a  noted  Cave,  called 
Howe?s  Cave,  that  has  been  explored  for  five  miles. 
It  is  situated  upon  the  Albany  and  Susquehanna 

Railroad. 

Mineral  Springs. 

New  York  is  noted  for  its  numerous  mineral 
Springs.  Among  medicinal  springs,  the  following 
are  places  of  resort :  Saratoga  and  Ballston  Springs, 
in  Saratoga  County  ;  New  Lebanon  and  Stockport.in 
Columbia  County  ;  Massena,  in  St  Lawrence  County  ; 
Richfield  in  Otsego  County  ;  Avon,  in  Livingston 
County ;  Clifton  in  Ontario  County ;  Sharon,  in 
Schoharie  County;  Chittenango,  in  Madison  County ; 
and  Alabama,  in  Gent-see  County. 

VII.  Lakes. 
Boundary  Lake*. 

The  lakes  are  a  distinguished  feature  of  this  State. 
Numbers  of  these  lie  wholly  within  its  borders  ;  but 
the  Great  Lakes,  properly  so-called,  lie  on  its  borders. 

Lake  Erie* 

Lake  Erie,  on  the  West,  is  268  miles  in  length  and 
from  80  to  64  miles  in  width.  Average  depth  130 
feet,  and  664  feet  aboro  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson. 


LAKES.  387 

Lake  Ontario* 

Lake  Ontario  is  next  in  size,  and  is  elliptical  in 
form  ;  it  is  190  miles  in  length  and  56  miles  in  width. 
Its  entire  Southern  shore,  east  of  Niagara  River,  is 
within  New  York  State.  Average  depth  500  feet  and 
231  feet  above  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson. 

Lake  Champlain. 

Lake  Charnplain  is  a  long,  narrow  sheet  of  water 
famed  for  its  beauty.  Its  extreme  length  is  134 
miles,  with  a  breadth  of  from  one-half  to  ten  miles. 
Its  waters  are  clear,  deep  and  cold.  Its  depth  in 
gome  places  is  300  feet. 

Fort  Ticonderogu. 

This  is  a  favorite  place  of  resort  for  summer  tour- 
ists, and  is  full  of  historic  interest.  The  old  fort,  on 
the  high  bluff  near  the  steamboat  wharf,  is  in  a  dilap- 
idated condition,  but  enough  remains  of  its  ruined 
bastions  to  make  it  a  most  interesting  subject  for  the 
study  of  those  who  have  any  reverence  for  the  mem- 
ory of  our  early  days  as  a  nation. 

Inland  Lakes. — Lake  George. 

"  Horicon  "  (the  Silvery  Waters)  is  an  Indian  name 
•often  Applied  to  this  unrivaled  gem  of  American 
lakes.  The  Indians  themselves  called  it  Can-i-a-deri- 
oit — the  tail  of  the  lake.  The  French  discovered  it 
in  1609,  and  named  it  Saint  Sacrement. 

The  entire  number  of  Interior  Lakes  in  the  State 
IB  estimated  at  650. 

The  whole  Adirondack  region  is  intersected  and 
diversified  by  a  net  work  of  lakes  and  streams,  which 


288      GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATE. 

render  it  picturesque  and  beautiful  in  an  aimost 
unequalled  degree. 

In  this  region  of  the  State  there  are  several 
hundred  lakes ;  the  principal  ones  are  the  Schroon, 
Placid,  Raquette,  Long,  Cranberry,  Upper  Saranac, 
Lower  Saranac,  Tupper's,  Chateaugay,  Chazy,  Peseco 
and  Pleasant. 

The  most  remarkable  and  important  feature  is  a 
series  of  beautiful  lakes  lying  in  the  transverse 
valleys  of  Central  New  York. 

The  following  are  the  principal  lakes  of  this 
region  :  Drained  by  the  Genesee — Hemlock,  Hone- 
oye,  Canadice  and  Conesus  ;  the  first  of  these  supplies 
the  city  of  Rochester  with  water  ;  by  the  Oswego — 
Canandaigua,  Keuka,  Seneca,  Cayuga,  Owasco, 
Skaneateles,  Cross,  Onondaga,  Otisco,  Cazenovia  and 
Oneida ;  by  the  Susquehanna — Otsego  and  Schuy- 
ler  ;  by  the  Alleghany — Chautauqua. 

VIII.  Climate. 

New  York  State  has  a  wider  range  of  climate  than 
any  other  state  in  the  Union.  In  the  interior  there 
are  great  extremes  of  temperature. 

The  Ocean  modifies  the  climate  of  the  South- 
eastern part ;  the  Great  Lakes  modify  the  climate  of 
the  North-western  and  Western  part ;  the  most  ex- 
treme clttnate  is  found  in  the  North-eastern  part. 

IX.  On  the  Natural  Advantages. 
1.  On  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
(a)  The  soil  in  the  valleys  is  very  productive.    The 
Mohawk  Valley  and  its  islands  raise  vast  quantities 


NA  T  URA  JU  AD  VANTA  QES.  389 

of  broom-corn,  supplying  more  than  half  the  United 
States  with  brooms.  The  Qenesee  Valley  raises  vast 
quantities  of  corn  and  polatoes. 

The  Northern  Counties,  the  high  regions  along  the 
Hudson,  and  the  Southern  border  are  the  chief  stock 
and  dairy  districts;  grain  is  the  principal  product  of 
the  rich  terraces  and  lowlands  of  the  west.  Hops 
are  chiefly  produced  in  Madison,  Oneida,  Otsego  and 
Schoharie;  tobacco  in  the  valley  of  the  Chemung 
and  in  Onondaga  and  Wayne  Counties;  grapes  and 
other  fruits  in  the  terrace  region,  in  the  Hudson  Val- 
ley, and  on  Long  Island.  Near  the  City  of  New 
York  market  gardening  and  the  supply  of  milk  are 
very  important  interests. 

(6)  FORESTS. — Forests  still  cover  a  great  portion  of 
the  State,  and  furnish  a  large  amount  of  lumber.  In 
the  Southern  tier  of  counties,  and  in  the  Adirondack 
region,  pine,  hemlock,  and  other  evergreens  are  the 
principal  trees.  Other  parts  of  the  State  have  a  great 
variety  of  maple,  hickory,  chestnut,  ash,  beech,  pine, 
spruce,  oak,  elm,  ash  and  locust. 

(e)  FACILITIES.— The  facilities  for  transportation 
are  abundant;  the  rivers,  lakes,  etc.,  affording  means 
of  easy  transportation. 

2.  Within  the  Earth — Minerals. 

(a)  The  most  useful  Minerals  and  Metals  are  found 
in  the  Eastern  half  of  the  State  from  Staten  Island  to 
Canada.  The  chief  mines  are  in  Orange,  Dutchcss, 
Essex,  Clinton,  Oneida  and  Wayne  Counties.  Lime- 
stone is  abundant  in  the  greater  part  of  the  State ; 


290      GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  TORE.  STATE. 

granite,  slate,  flag,  Milestone  and  cement — the  three 
last  mentioned  are  found  in  Ulster  County;  and  brick 
clay  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson. 

Lead,  zinc,  copper,  arsenic,  manganese,  gypsum 
and  water  lime  are  found  in  considerable  quantities. 

Traces  of  gold  are  found  in  the  rock  formation  on 
the  East  bank  of  the  Hudson,  near  Poughkeepsie. 

The  salt  springs  of  Onondaga  County  supply  the 
most  extensive  salt  works  ir  the  United  States.  The 
product  in  1874  was.  S,  600, 600  bushels. 

(ft)  IN  THE  WATERS. — Cod  and  mackerel  fisheries 
«re  extensively  carried  on  off  the  coast  of  Long 
Island,  and  the  rivers  have  been  stocked  with  fish. 


THE  METROPOLIS  AND  LEADING  CITIES 
OF  THE  STATE. 

New  York. 

The  population  of  New  Fork  city  is  1,104,523.  It 
JB  tne  first  city  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  in  popu- 
Ation,  wealth  and  commerce,  and  destined  to  be  the 
metropolis  of  the  civilized  world.  It  is  situated  on 
Manhattan  and  sever  A!  smaller  islands  and  the  ad- 
jacent main  lands,  ilanhattan  Island  is  13|  miles 
in  length,  and  from  1  to  2  miles  in  breadth. 

The  extreme  length  of  New  York  city  proper  is  16 
miles,  its  greatest  width  4£  miles,  &£c  its  area  41$ 
square  miles,  22  being  on  Manhattan  Island.  It  now 
includes  a  portion  of  Westchester  county,  inclusive 
to  Bronx  River. 


NEW  YORK  CITY,  291 

New  York  is  called  the  "Empire  State"  and  the 
city  the  "  Metropolitan  City."  It  is  not  only  noted  for 
its  extensive  commerce  and  wealth,  but  for  the  num- 
ber of  its  magnificent  hotels,  banks,  churches  and 
private  dwellings,  and  for  its  Central  Park. 

Within  a  radius  of  20  miles  from  the  City  the  total 
population  is  nearly  2,000,000.  Of  this  number,  560,- 
000  are  within  the  neighboring  counties  of  New 
York,  and  395,000  in  those  of  New  Jersey.  1,809,000 
were  within  the  radius  of  ten  miles.  These  limits  in- 
clude many  large  manufacturing  cities  and  towns, 
great  commercial  depots  and  thriving  villages,  whose 
chief  interests  are  so  closely  connected  with  those  of 
New  York  that  these  communities  practically  con- 
stitute an  essential  part  of  the  metropolis.  Twenty, 
seven  steam  ferries,  twenty  converging  railways,  and 
numerous  steamboat  lines,  enable  vast  multitudes  of 
those  whose  homes  are  in  these  outlying  suburbs  to 
attend  to  their  daily  business  in  the  great  city. 

Advantages  of  Location. 

New  York  is  pre-eminently  a  commercial  city.  In 
this  respect  it  ranks  among  the  most  important  in  the 
world.  Its  harbor  is  of  unsurpassed  excellence. 
Lower  Bay  presents  eighty-eight,  and  New  York  Bay 
about  twenty-seven  square  miles  of  anchorage.  The 
island  has  nearly  twenty-five  miles  of  water-front,  and 
the  suburbs  at  least  as  much  more.  Great  numbers 
of  steamboats  ply  on  Long  Island  Sound  and  the  Hud- 
son ;  on  the  latter  a  single  "tug "may  frequently  be 
seen  with  a  "tow"  of  from  fifteen  to  fifty  barges, 
canal  boats,  and  other  craft.  Many  lines  of  ocean 


292      GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATE. 

steamers  run  to  the  chief  ports  of  the  West  Indies, 
South  America,  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  the 
Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States. 

The  port  of  New  York  has  more  than  one-half  of 
the  foreign  trade  of  the  Union,  and  collects  about 
two-thirds  of  all  the  duties  on  imports.  The  internal 
and  coasting  trade  is  also  enormous. 

Brooklyn, 

in  Kings  County,  is  the  third  city  in  the  United 
States  in  population.  It  is  situated  on  East  River 
and  New  York  Bay,  at  the  Western  extremity  of 
Long  Island,  opposite  New  York,  and  covers  about 
twenty-one  square  miles.  Its  immense  commercial 
interests  and  advantages  are  among  its  chief  features. 
The  city  has  a  water-front  of  about  eight  and  a  half 
miles,  entirely  occupied  with  piers,  slips,  ferries, 
ware-houses  and  storage  yards,  and  is  one  of  the 
greatest  grain  depots  in  the  world.  The  Atlantic 
Docks  are  a  long  four-sided  basin  in  the  South- 
western part  of  the  city.  The  basfn  is  twenty-five 
feet  deep,  and  covers  forty  acres.  It  has  about  two 
miles  of  wharfage,  and  is  surrounded,  except  at  the 
entrance,  by  storage  houses,  substantially  built  of 
granite  and  brick,  and  covering  twenty  acres  more. 
South  of  this  are  the  Erie  basin  of  sixty  acres,  and 
the  Brooklyn  basin  of  forty  acres.  The  value  of  the 
articles  stored  in  the  various  warehouses  of  the  water 
front  has  in  some  years  exceeded  $ 260 ,000, 000,  em- 
bracing every  variety  of  slaple  domestic  and  impor- 
ted produce,  grain  being  the  chief  item. 


LEADING  CITIES.  293 

Brooklyn  is  connected  with  New  York  by  twelve 
eteam  ferries,  which  ply  day  and  night.  In  1872  they 
conveyed  over  60,000,000  passengers  and  an  enor- 
mous number  of  loaded  vehicles.  The  two  cities 
will  soon  be  more  closely  connected  by  a  gigantic 
suspension  bridge,  now  in  great  part  completed.  Two 
massive  stone  piers,  268  feet  high,  and  built  on  the 
opposite  margins  of  the  river,  will  support  four 
cables  of  steel  wire,  each  sixteen  inches  in  diameter. 
These  cables  will  sustain  the  roadways.  The  bridge 
will  be  85  feet  wide,  its  central  span  from  pier  to  pier 
1,595  feet,  and  its  total  length  about  6,000  feet. 

Buffalo, 

a  city  of  Erie  County,  is  situated  on  a  gently  sloping 
plain  at  the  Eastern  end  of  Lake  Erie,  at  the  head  of 
Niagara  River,  and  at  its  junction  with  Buffalo 
River.  It  has  an  extensive  system  of  beautiful  pub- 
lic parks,  connected  by  broad  boulevards.  A  tunnel 
supplies  the  city  with  pure  water  from  the  middle  of 
the  bed  of  Niagara. 

The  situation  of  the  city,  and  its  facilities  for  the 
reception  and  transportation  of  merchandise,  make 
it  a  very  important  commercial  centre.  It  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Erie  Canal,  of  several  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  trunk  railroads,  and  of  the  navigation  of 
the  upper  lakes.  It  has  a  water-front  of  two  and  a 
half  miles  on  Lake  Erie,  and  of  equal  length  on 
Niagara  River.  Its  harbor,  which  is  one  of  the  best 
on  the  lakes,  has  three  divisions,  and  is  protected  by 
extensive  breakwaters. 

The  city  has  an  immense  traffic,  grain  being  the 


294      GSOGEAPBT  OF  NEW  YOEK  STATE. 

leading  item.  Only  second  to  this  is  the  trade  in 
live  stock.  It  is  also  largely  engaged  in  shipping  coal 
to  the  Central  States  and  Canada.  Its  manufactures 
are  important.  Iron  manufactures  in  great  variety 
constitute  the  chief  industry.  All  of  the  iron  ves- 
sels on  the  Great  Lakes  were  built  at  Buffalo.  There 
are  numerous  tin,  copper  and  sheet-iron  works,  brass 
founderies,  furniture,  barrel,  and  boot  and-shoe  fac- 
tories, carriage,  wagon,  and  car  shops,  flour  mills, 
tanneries  and  breweries. 

Albany, 

a  city  of  Albany  County,  is  the  capital  of  the  State. 
It  is  favorably  situated  for  commerce  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Hudson,  near  the  head  of  tide-water  and 
of  navigation.  It  is  also  the  terminus  of  the  Erie- 
Canal  and  of  five  railroads.  The  city  is  a  great  grain 
market,  and  the  chief  lumber  market  of  the  State. 
Among  the  public  buildings  and  noted  institutions 
are  the  State  Library,  the  Geological  and  Agricul- 
tural Hall,  the  State  Normal  School,  the  State  Hall, 
and  the  City  Hall.  The  new  Capitol,  a  vast  granite 
structure  yet  unfinished,  will  be  the  most  splendid 
public  building  in  America  excepting  the  Capitol  at 
Washington.  Population  86,013. 

Rochester, 

a  city  of  Monroe  County,  is  situated  on  Genesee 
River,  seven  miles  from  Lake  Ontario,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Erie  with  the  Genesee  Valley  Canal  and  of 
the  New  York  Central  with  several  other  railroads. 
Besides  the  large  railway  traffic,  there  is  considerable 
export  and  import  trade  with  Canada. 


LEADING  CITIES.  296 

Within  the  city  limits  the  river  has  three  falls  of 
96,  25  and  84  feet,  and  furnishes  an  enormous  amount 
of  water-power.  The  chief  products  are  flour,  cloth- 
ing, boots  and  shoes,  leather,  furniture,  carriages  and 
•wagons,  iron  castings  and  machinery.  Rochester  is 
surrounded  by  a  very  fertile  country,  largely  occupied 
with  nurseries  of  fruit  and  ornamental  trees.  Some 
of  these  nurseries  are  among  the  largest  in  the  world. 

Population,  81,673. 

Troy, 

a  manufacturing  city  of  Rensselaer  County,  on  the 
East  bank  of  the  Hudson, six  miles  above  Albany,  is 
at  the  head  of  tide-water,  and  of  steam  navigation, 
and  at  the  principal  outlet  of  Erie  and  Champlain 
Canals.  It  is  the  center  of  five  railroads.  Its  steel 
and  iron  manufactures  are  among  the  most  import- 
ant in  the  United  States.  They  embrace  every  form 
of  iron  and  steel,  of  iron  and  steel  castings,  and  of 
wrought,  hollow,  and  pressed  ware.  Troy  is  also 
the  chief  seat  of  the  shirt  and  collar  manufacture, 
and  has  a  large  lumber  trade.  It  also  manufactures 
bells,  mathematical  instruments,  and  linen  goods. 

Population,  48,821. 

Syracuse, 

is  a  manufacturing  city  of  Onondaga  County,  at  the 
head  of  Onondaga  Lake  and  at  the  junction  of  the 
Erie  and  Oswego  Canals.  It  is  an  important  railroad 
centre,  having  seven  diverging  lines.  Salt  is  the 
chief  interest.  Among  the  great  variety  of  manu- 
facturing establishments  are  blast-furnaces,  steel 
works,  and  rolling-mills.  The  product  has  reached 
$14,000,000  a  year.  Population,  54,396. 


296       GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STA  TE. 

Utica, 

a  city  of  Oneida  County,  is  at  the  South  bank  of  the 
Mohawk,  at  the  junction  of  the  Erie  and  Chenango 
and  of  the  New  York  Central  and  several  other  rail- 
roads. It  is  noted  for  its  extensive  cheese  trade.  Its 
various  manufactures  have  amounted  to  $8,000,000  a 
year.  Population,  32,070. 

Oswego, 

a  city  of  Oswego  County,  is  beautifully  situated  on 
Lake  Ontario,  at  the  mouth  of  Oswego  River  and  on 
the  Oswego  branch  of  Erie  Canal.  It  has  a  delight- 
ful summer  climate,  well-shaded  trees  and  many 
handsome  buildings,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  State  Nor- 
mal and  Training  School.  Four  railways  give  com- 
munication with  other  parts  of  the  State,  with  Penn- 
sylvania, and  the  West.  Daily  lines  of  steamers  run 
to  the  St.  Lawrence,  Niagara,  Toronto,  and  Chicago. 
The  harbor  affords  three  miles  of  wharfage  on  the 
lake  and  river,  and  is  protected  by  extensive  break- 
waters. The  city  is  a  great  grain  depot  and  has  a 
large  trade  in  Canadian  barley  and  lumber,  and  in 
Pennsylvania  coal.  Oswego  River  falls  110  feet  jn 
twelve  miles,  86  feet  within  the  city  limits,  and 
affords  extensive  water-power.  There  are  many 
flouring-mills  and  iron-works,  ship-yards,  and*  the 
most  extensive  starch-factory  in  the  world.  Popula- 
tion, 22,455. 

EJmira. 

a  city  of  Chemung  County,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of 
Chemung  River  and  on  the  Erie  and  Northern  Central 
Railways.  It  is  handsomely  laid  out  in  a  broad  and 


SMALLER  CITIES.  297 


fertile  valley.  Newton  Creek,  a  branch  of  the 
Chemung,  furnishes  abundant  water-power.  It  has 
rolling-mills  and  other  iron-works,  flour-mills,  brew- 
eries and  tanneries.  Among  other  productions  are 
boots  and  shoes,  agricultural  implements,  edge  tools, 
and  carriages.  Population,  20,538. 

Kingston* 

a  commercial  and  manufacturing  city  of  Ulster 
County,  is  situated  on  the  Western  bank  of  the  Hud- 
son and  on  Rondout  Creek,  which  forms  its  harbor, 
and  is  here  navigable  for  three  miles.  The  city  is 
the  terminus  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  and 
of  two  railroads.  It  has  four  miles  of  wharfage,  and 
employs  a  large  number  of  steamboats  and  barges  in 
the  river  trade.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  ice  industry, 
one  of  the  most  important  on  the  Hudson.  Hy- 
draulic cement,  for  which  Ulster  is  noted,  is  shipped 
to  the  amount  of  1,500,000  pounds  a  year.  Besides 
this  there  are  immense  amounts  of  coal  brought  by 
the  canal ;  also  blue  stone,  bricks,  lime,  and  lumber. 
Population,  20,474. 

Ponghkeepsie, 

a  city  of  Dutchess  County,  is  mostly  situated  on  high 
land  on  the  East  bank  of  the  Hudson  River.  It  is 
the  largest  city  between  New  York  and  Albany,  and 
is  connected  with  those  cities  by  the  Hudson  River 
Railroad  and  several  steamboat  lines.  The  Pough- 
keepsie,  Hartford  and  Boston  Railroad  connects  it 
with  New  England.  A  great  rail  road  bridge  across 
the  Hudson  is  about  to  be  constructed.  The  city  has 


288      GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATS. 

an  important  trade  with  the  neighboring  farming  dis- 
trict, a  large  river  trade,  and  extensive  manufactures. 
It  has  a  rolling-mill,  iron  furnaces,  and  founderies, 
and  ship-yards.  From  its  educational  advantages  it 
is  sometimes  called  the  "City  of  Schools."  Vassar 
College,  for  young  ladies,  is  about  two  miles  East  of 
the  city.  Population,  19,859. 

Auburn, 

is  a  manufacturing  city  of  Cayuga  County,  on  New 
York  Central  Railroad  and  Southern  Central  Rail- 
road, two  miles  from  Owasco  Lake,  on  its  outlet, 
which  supplies  one  of  the  best  water-powers  of  the 
State  ;  nine  dams ;  falls  160  feet  within  city.  It 
manufactures  cottons,  woolens,  carpets,  reapers,  and 
mowers  and  other  agricultural  implements  ;  and  has 
machine-shops,  tool-factories,  flouring-mills,  and 
breweries.  Valuable  lime-stone  quarries  are  within 
the  city  limits.  It  is  handsomely  built  on  high,  un- 
even ground.  Population,  18,359. 

Cohoes, 

is  a  manufacturing  city  of  Albany  County,  at  Cohoes 
Falls,  and  an  the  right  bank  of  the  Mohawk  at  its 
confluence  with  the  Hudson,  and  on  Erie  Canal  near 
its  junction  with  the  Champlain  Canal  ;  it  has  two 
railroads.  The  Mohawk  falls  120  feet  in  a  mile  and 
a  half,  70  feet  just  above  the  city,  and  is  remarkable 
for  its  picturesque  beauty,  besides  being  one  of  the 
best  water-powers  in  the  United  States.  Very 
large  cotton-mills.  •  Knit-goods  a  prominent  indus- 
try. Cohoes  produces  about  one-third  of  all  hosiery 
made  in  the  United  States.  Population,  17,516. 


SMALLER  CITIES.  298 

Newburgh, 

a  city  of  Orange  County,  on  a  plateau  and  steep 
elope  on  West  bank  of  the  Hudson.  Terminus  of 
branch  of  Erie  Railway.  Ferries  to  Fishkiil,  and  to 
Dutchess  Junction  on  Hudson  River  Railroad  ;  ter- 
minus of  New  York,  Boston  and  Montreal  Railway. 
Important  trade  with  rich  agricultural  country  ;  river 
trade ;  ships  cattle,  milk,  butter,  fruit,  etc.  Manu- 
factures extensive  :  machinery,  castings,  brass,  car- 
pets, cotton-goods,  paper,  soap,  and  cement-pipe. 
Noted  for  containing  Washington's  headquarters, 
and  as  the  place  of  the  disbandment  of  the  army  of 
the  Revolution.  Population,  17,327. 

Yonkers, 

a  residential  city  of  Weschester  County,  on  East  bank 
of  the  Hudson,  adjoining  New  York  City.  Beau- 
tifully situated  on  rising  ground  opposite  the  Pali- 
sades. On  Hudson  River  Railroad  and  two  others. 
Nepperhan,  or  Saw  Mill  River,  furnishes  water- 
power.  Considerable  manufacturing.  Population, 
17,337. 

Long  Island  City, 

a  city  of  Queens  County,  near  the  Western  end  of 
Long  Island,  opposite  New  York,  has  ten  miles  of 
water-front  on  East  River  and  Newtown  Creek. 
Wide  streets  and  avenues.  Two  ferries.  Terminus 
of  three  railroads  and  freight  depot  of  another.  Great 
depot  for  storage  and  shipment  of  kerosene.  Lum- 
ber-yards, oil-refineries,  pianos,  carriages,  jewelry, 
etc.  Population,  15,609. 


300       GEO  OBAPEY  OF  NE  W  YORK  8TA  TE. 

Binghamton, 

a  city  of  Broome  County,  at  junction  of  Susquehanna 
and  Chenango  Rivers,  and  on  Chenango  Canal  and 
Brie  Railroad  at  junction  of  three  others.  Hand- 
somely laid  out.  The  Chenango  furnishes  water- 
power.  Numerous  manufactures  ;  flour  and  lumber. 
Population,  15,550. 

Scheiiectady, 

a  city  of  Schenectady  County,  on  the  South  bank  of 
the  Mohawk  and  both  sides  of  Erie  Canal.  On  New 
York  Central  and  three  other  railroads.  Largely 
engaged  in  manufacturing.  Broom  factories,  engine 
and  boiler,  locomotive,  and  other  iron  works ;  knit- 
ting mills.  Seat  of  Union  College.  Population, 

12,748. 

JLockport) 

a  city  of  Niagara  County,  on  Erie  Canal  and  New 
York  Central  Railroad.  In  rich  agricultural  district. 
Large  quarries  of  excellent  limestone  and  sandstone. 
Erie  Canal  here  falls  60  feet  by  six  locks  ;  surplus 
water  furnishes  three  quarters  of  a  mile  of  hydraulic 
canal  and  immense  water-power.  Flout,  saw,  cotton, 
and  woolen  mills.  Population,  12,624. 

Rome, 

a  city  of  Oneida  County,  on  West  bank  of  Mohawk, 
at  junction  of  Erie  and  Black  River  Canals,  and  of 
New  York  Central  with  two  other  railroads.  Wide 
shaded  streets ;  public  and  private  parks  and  foun- 
tains. Large  general  trade.  Numerous  manufac- 
turing establishments.  Site  of  Fort  Stanwix  and 
Battle  of  Oriskany.  Population,  11,922. 


SMALLER  CITIES.  301 


Ogdensbnrg, 

a  city  of  St.  Lawrence  County,  on  St.  Lawrence 
River  at  junction  of  the  Oswegatchie,  and  four  miles 
above  the  rapids.  Regularly  laid  out  and  hand- 
somely built.  Called  the  "Maple  City"  from  its 
many  and  beautiful  shade  trees.  Perries  to  Preecott 
in  Canada,  and  a  line  of  many  steamers  to  Chicago. 
Foreign  and  domestic  commerce  both  important. 
Receives  immense  quantities  of  grain  and  lumber. 
Excellent  water-power  ;  flour,  lumber,  shingles  and 
staves.  Population,  10,076.  i 

Watertown, 

a  beautiful  commercial  and  manufacturing  city  of 
Jefferson  County,  on  Black  River,  ten  miles  from  its 
mouth  in  Lake  Ontario.  Large  trade  with  rich  agri- 
cultural country,  abounding  in  iron  and  limestone. 
Railroad  connection  with  New  York  and  the  coal 
regions.  Abundant  water-power.  Black  River  falls 
112  feet  in  two  miles  within  the  city  limits.  Flour, 
lumber,  printing  paper,  and  many  other  manufac- 
tures. Population,  10,041. 

Hudson, 

a  city  of  Columbia  County,  beautifully  situated  on 
high  ground  on  East  bank  of  Hudson  River,  at  the 
head  of  ship  navigation,  116  miles  from  New  York. 
On  Hudson  River  Railroad  at  terminus  of  Hudson 
River  and  Boston  Railroad.  Connects  with  New 
Tork  Central  by  a  branch.  Large  trade  ;  pressed  hay 
the  leading  article.  Extensive  manufactures  of  iron 
and  of  iron  machinery,  goods  and  .wares.  Popula- 
tion, 8,828. 


-802       GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATS. 

ORAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

State   of  New    fork. 

1.  Map  and  bound  the  entire  State. 

2.  How  many  counties  in  the  State  f 
8.  What  is  a  State  ? 

4.  What  is  a  County  ? 

5.  Where  was  the  first  settlement  in  New  York 
made? 

6.  By  whom? 

7.  Whence  did  they  come? 

8.  In  what  year?    1614. 

9.  Where  did  they  locate  ? 

10.  Was  the  State  inhabited  previous  to  that  time? 

11.  By  whom,  and  what  became  of  them? 

12.  Describe  Lake  George. 

13.  Describe  Lake  Erie. 

14.  Describe  Chautauqua  Lake. 

15.  Describe  Lake  Canaiidaigua. 

16.  Describe  Crooked  Lake.    (Keuka), 

17.  Describe  Seneca  Lake. 

18.  Describe  Cayuga  Lake. 

19.  Describe  Owasco  Lake. 

20.  Describe  Skaneateles  Lake. 

21.  Describe  Oneida  Lake. 

22.  Describe  Otsego  Lake. 

23.  What  river  is  the  outlet  of  Lake  Erie  f 
24  Of  Lake  Ontario  ? 

25.  Of  Lake  Champlain? 

26.  What  outlet  has  Canandaigua  Lake? 

27.  Crooked  Lake  ? 

28.  Seneca  Lake  ? 


ORAL  QUESTIONING.  308 

29.  Cayuga  Lake  ? 

30.  Owasco  Lake? 

31.  Oneida  Lake? 

32    Skaneateles  Lake  ? 

33.  Lake  George? 

34.  What  river  receives  the  waters  from  the  central 
lakes  f 

35.  In  what  direction  do  the  waters  of  each  lake 
flow? 

36.  What  lake  between  Vermont  and  New  York? 
37   What  lakes  between  New  York  and  Canada  ? 

38.  Describe  Niagara  River. 

39.  Mohawk  River. 

40.  St.  Lawrence  River. 

41.  Genesee  River. 

42.  Harlem  River. 

43.  East  River. 

44.  Hudson  River. 

45.  Through  what  counties  does  the  Mohawk  River 
flow? 

46.  Of  what  is  Mohawk  River  a  Branch? 

47.  What  is  a  branch  ? 

48.  What  river  flows  into  the  east  end  of  Lake 
Ontario? 

49.  What  mountains  in  New  York  ? 

50.  Where  are  the  Adirondack  mountains? 

51.  Where  are  the  Catskill  mountains? 

52.  Where  are  the  Highlands? 

53.  Which  is  the  highest  mountain  in  New  Yorkf 
64.  Its  elevation  ? 

55.  What  bay  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State  ? 


304      GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATE. 

56.  Where  is  Manhattan  or  New  York  Island,  and 
what  waters  surround  it? 

57.  Staten  Island  ? 

58.  Long  Island? 

59.  Goat  Island? 

60.  Thousand  Islands? 

61.  What  Island  west  of  Long  Island? 

62.  What  Sound  between  Long  Island  and  Con- 
necticut ? 

63.  Describe  the  Erie  Canal. 
64   Genesee  Valley  Canal. 

65.  Oswego  Canal. 

66.  Chenango  Canal. 

67.  By  what  railroad  would  you  travel  from  Utica 
to  Binghamton  ? 

68.  What  canal  crosses  the  State  ? 

69.  Its  length?  364  miles. 

70.  What  waters  does  it  connect? 

71.  What  city  at  the  east  end? 

72.  What  city  at  the  west  end  ? 

73.  On  what  canal  can  you  sail  from  Lake  Erie  to 
Lake  Ontario? 

74.  On  what  canal  do  you  sail  from  Lake  Erie  to 
Hudson  River? 

75.  On  what  canal  do  you  sail  from  Syracuse  to 
Oswego  ? 

76.  On  what  water  can  you  sail  from  New  York  to 
Albany  ? 

77.  On  what  water  can  you  sail  from  Albany  to 
Buffalo? 

78.  How  many  cities  in  the  State  of  New  York  ? 


ORAL  QUESTIONING.  SOS 

79.  Locate  and  describe  the  following  cities,  and 
give  the  population  of  each  : 

Rochester,  Auburn, 

Syracuse,  Utica, 

Troy,  Schenectady, 

Albany,  Poughkeepsie, 

Elmira,  New  York, 

Brooklyn,  Rome, 

Buffalo,  Binghamton, 

Hudson,  Kingston, 

Long  Island  City,  Lockport, 

Newburg,  Ogdensburg, 

Oswego,  Watertown, 

Yonkers,"*  .      Cohoes. 

80.  What  city  of  New  York  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment ? 

81.  Mention  the  the  State  buildings  in  Albany. 

82.  How  many  State  Senators  convene  at  Albany  f 

83.  Their  term  of  office  ? 

84.  How  many  Assemblymen  ? 

85.  Their  term  of  office  f 

86.  What  constitutes  our  Senatorial  District  f 

87.  What  constitutes  our  Assembly  District  f 

88.  Give  the  population  of  the  State. 

89.  Its  area  in  square  miles. 

90.  In  the  basin  of  what  great  rivers  is  New  Yorkf 

91.  Trace  those  rivers  on  the  map. 

How  to  Draw  the  Outline  01  New  York  State. 

The  first  point  will  represent  the  north-eastern 
extremity  of  New  York.  Name  it  "  1 ; "  the  second 
point  one  inch  below  the  flret,  name  it  "  2 ; "  the  third 


806      GEOGRAPHY  Of  NEW  YORK  STATE. 

point  one  inch  below  the  second,  name  it  "  3  ; "  the 
fourth  point  one  inch  below  the  third,  name  It  "  4  ;H 
one  inch  at  the  left  of  point  "3"  a  point,  name  it 
"  5  ; "  two  and  a  fourth  inches  to  the  left  of  "5"  a 
point,  name  it  "  6  ;  "  one-half  an  inch  above  "  6  "  a 
point,  name  it  "  7  ; "  one-half  an  inch  to  the  right  of 
"7"  a  point,  name  it  "S; "  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
above  "  8  "  a  point,  name  it  "  9  ; "  place  a  point  mid- 
way between  "  9  "  and  "  2,"  name  it  "  10  ; "  one-half 
of  an  inch  above  "  10  "'a  point,  name  it  "  11 ; "  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  at  the  left  of  "  1 "  appoint,  name 
it  "  12  ; "  place  a  point  mid-way  between  "2"  and 
"8,"  and  a  point  mid- way  between  "3"  and  "4  ;" 
one  and  one-fifth  inches  to  the  right  of  point "  4 " 
and  a  little  above,  a  point,  and  name  it "  13  ; "  this 
point  will  indicate  the  eastern  extremity  of  Long 

Island. 

Blackboard  Outline. 

The  unit  of  measurement  may  here  be  10  inches. 
Whatever  length  the  unit  may  be,  it  represents  the 
length  of  Lake  Champlain,  which  is  134  miles. 

From  2  to  8,  from  3  to  4,  and  from  3  to  5  each  are 
equal  to  the  first  distance.  The  Northern  boundary 
of  Massachusetts  is  midway  between  2  and  3. 

From  5  to  6  is  two  and  one-fourth  times  the  first 
distance,  and  it  is  in  line  with  the  Southern  boundary 
of  Massachusetts.  From  6  to  7  and  from  7  to  8  are 
each  one-half  of  first  distance.  Lake  Ontario  ex- 
tends as  far  West  as  the  State  ;  its  Eastern  shore  is 
midway  between  the  Niagara  River  and  the  Eastern 
boundary  of  the  State,  and  the  distance  between  the 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEE  TEACHER.         307 

Southern  shore  and  the  Southern  boundary  of  the 
State  is  three-fourths  of  the  first  distance.  The 
width  of  Lake  Ontario  is  one-half  of  the  first  dis- 
tance. From  1  to  12  is  three-fourths  of  the  first 
distance. 

Suggestions  to  the  Teacher. 

The  teacher  should  draw  the  map  on  the  black- 
board to  a  certain  scale,  and  require  the  pupils  t*» 
draw  the  same  on  the  blackboard,  elates  or  paper. 
The  teacher  should  furnish  a  measure  for  the  children, 
and  require  them  to  reproduce  a  correct  drawing  of 
the  map.  Measures  either  six  inches  or  one  foot  long, 
as  desired,  may  be  obtained  of  Davis,  Bardeen  &  Co., 
Syracuse,  for  $1.00  a  hundred. 

The  physical  features  should  be  represented  first ; 
these  and  other  conditions  are  antecedent  to  the  facts 
of  descriptive  geography. 

Helps  in  Teaching  Geography. 

In  teaching  the  geography  of  New  York  State,  the 
first  requisite  is  a  good  Map  of  the  State.  Of  late 
years  this  has  been  difficult  to  procure.  The  map 
drawn  by  John  H.  French  and  published  in  1858  by 
Robert  Pearsall  Smith,  is  now  scarce  and  costly,  as 
well  as  old.  A  new  map  has  just  been  published, 
however,  three  and  a  half  feet  by  four,  giving  county 
boundaries  and  with  the  towns  brightly  colored.  It 
costs  $2.00,  and  should  hang  in  very  school-room  in 
the  State. 

For  young  scholars,  and  indeed  for  older  ones  too, 
Dissected  Maps  are  of  great  value.  Two  of  these 


«08      GEOGRAPHY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATS. 

are  published  at  75  cents  each,  one  of  New  York 
State,  cut  up  into  counties,  and  the  other  of  the 
United  States,  cut  up  into  states.  To  properly  place 
these  counties  and  states  impresses  their  relative 
positions  very  effectively. 

Of  hooks  relating  to  the  history  and  characteristic 
features  of  New  York  State,  the  Historical  and 
Statistical  Gazeteer,  published  at  the  same  time  with 
French's  Map,  is  now  scarce  and  out  of  date,  and  no 
similar  work  has  since  been  published.  The  His- 
tory of  New  York  State,  by  8.  S.  Randall,  formerly 
Deputy  State  Superintendent,  will  be  found  interest- 
ing and  of  great  value.  The  price  is  $1.50. 

The  Natural  History  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
in  twenty-two  large  quarto  volumes,  profusely  illus- 
trated, is  indeed  a  magnificent  work,  having  cost  the 
State  some  $500,000.  Complete  sets  are  rare,  and 
•worth  $100.00  or  more ;  but  separate  volumes  in 
Zoology,  Botany,  Geology,  etc.,  can  frequently  be 
purchased  at  comparatively  low  rates,  and  should  be 
eagerly  studied  by  the  teacher. 

Any  ot  the  above  may  be  purchased  of  Davis, 
Bardeen  &  Co.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  They  have  also 
published  a  special  geography  of  Onondaga  County, 
accompanied  by  a  colored  map;  price  25  cts.  It 
could  be  desired  that  similar  maps  might  be  pub- 
lished for  all  the  counties  of  the  State. 


HISTORY. 
INTRODUCTION. 

Our  schools  can  permit  their  pupils  to  devote  but 
a  small  portion  of  their  time  to  the  study  of  history. 
If  all  other  studies  were  neglected,  a  life  time  ia 
much  too  short  to  acquaint  one's-self  fully  with  all 
the  facts  of  history. 

The  facts  of  history  comprise  the  sum  ot  the  events 
that  man  has  brought  about  in  all  the  teeming  cen- 
turies since  first  he  inhabited  the  earth.  The  number 
is  beyond  the  power  of  imagination  to  conceive,  and 
Historians  do  not  attempt  to  enumerate  them.  They 
describe  some  of  the  grandest  and  most  interesting 
features  of  a  nation's  life,  and  leave  the  rest  to  be 
inferred  or  forgotten. 

Study  the  Causes. 

History  describes  the  past  conditions  and  actions 
of  men,  and  investigates  the  causes  which  have 
operated  to  produce  them.  History  should  be  taught 
from  a  series  of  progressive  stand-points. 

In  the  history  of  every  nation  there  are  certain 
prominent  events  from  which  as  centres  other 
minor  events  have  seemed  to  emanate,  and  to  which 
they  bear  reference.  It  is  only  of  these  great  event* 


810  HISTORY. 

that  we  need  to  know  the  dates  or  toe  minute  par 
ticulars.  It  is  a  useless  wastt  jl  time  and  labor  to 
commit  to  memory  a  great  number  of  dates  to  be 
speedily  forgotten.  Only  such  dates  should  be 
comiritted  to  memoiy  as  are  indispensible  as  land- 
marks in  history.  The  sequence  of  events,  rather 
*han  the  precise  date  of  each,  is  what  is  chiefly  nec- 
essary. 

Ordinary  Methods  Useless. 

The  teaching  that  goes  under  this  name  in  schools 
s  generally  a  farce.  It  c  ^\«ists  usually  in  stringing 
together  the  names  and  date-j  with  a  few  facts  of  the 
least  important  kind.  Or,  if  more  is  attempted,  it  Is 
reading  in  a  text-book ;  in  which  case  generally 
there  is  little  within  a  child's  sympathy  or  compre- 
hension, and  together  are  often  jumbled,  -without 
purpose  or  method,  facts  of  the  most  diverse  kind, 
from  which  it  is  impossible  to  gain  a  clear  concep- 
tion of  any  of  its  elements.  "When  such  an  array  of 
facts  are  given  as  a  whole  to  *  child,  they  can  produce 
nothing  but  embarrassment. 

Conditions  Under  which  Taught. 

The  conditions  under  which  history  is  likely  to  be 
taught  must  be  fully  understood  before  determining 
•what  to  attempt  or  how  to  attempt  it.  When  school 
life  is  short,  little,  if  anything,  can  be  done.  Reading, 
writing  and  arithmetic  must  be  taught ;  if  the  pupils 
remain  in  school  a  few  years  instead  of  a  few  months 
teachers  may  be  able  to  give  one  or  two  lessons 
weekly  \  these  should  be  oral  lessons.  If  they  pass 
through  the  grades  they  should  take  it  up  as  one  of 


DISCIPLINE  AND  INFLUENCE.  311 

the  regular  studies.  In  our  common  schools  much 
time  cannot  be  given  to  it  consistently  with  the 
claims  of  other  studies  ;  yet  it  should  receive  atten- 
tion and  a  certain  number  of  lessons  should  be  given 
every  term. 

History  of  Their  Own   Courtry. 

A  knowledge  of  the  history  of  their  own  country 
is  about  all  that  can  be  expected  of  pupils  in  our 
common  schools,  but  in  the  higher  schools  it  should 
be  extended  to  universal  history. 

No  one  can  well  do  without  this  knowledge,  and 
to  the  citizen  it  seems  indispensable.  The  law  should 
require  the  history  of  the  United  States  to  be  taught 
in  every  school. 

Intellectual  Discipline. 

The  study  of  history  furnishes  a  valuable  intel- 
lectual discipline.  To  this  end  a  simple  preliminary 
outline  sketch  should  be  carefully  fixed  in  the  minda 
of  the  pupils.  We  would  refer  the  teacher  to  the 
lessons  on  history. 

Moral  Influence. 

History  presents  many  examples  of  good  and  great 
men  and  women  who  honored  by  their  noble  deeds 
the  age  and  country  in  which  they  lived. 

Moral  examples  have  more  influence  upon  the 
young  than  moral  precepts.  The  heart  is  more  easily 
moved  to  virtue  by  incidental  teaching  than  by 
direct  teaching.  The  great  deeds  of  the  past  have 
been  done  by  beings  like  themselves,  and  they 
cannot  resist  the  desire  to  know  them,  In  this  str.dy_ 


SUs  HIS10RY. 

they  see  life  ;  in  other  studies  they  come  into  the 
possession  of  interesting  facts  and  principles  by 
observation  and  by  experiment. 

The  history  of  such  men  as  Washington,  Franklin, 
Lincoln,  and  scores  of  others,  will  prove  an  incen- 
tive to  American  youth,  and  the  moral  seeds  sown 
in  open  hearts  will  germinate  and  eventually  pro- 
duce rich  fruit. 

Little  Interest  in  the  Study. 

The  reason  why  pupils  take  so  little  interest  in  the 
study  of  history  is  principally  on  account  of  the 
fragmentary  manner  in  which  the  subject  is  presented 
in  our  text-books.  Lessons  in  history  should  be 
assigned  by  topics,  and  not  by  pages.  All  verbatim 
recitations  of  sentences  and  paragraphs  should  be 
strictly  forbidden,  and  the  pupils  should  be  required 
to  state  the  facts  in  their  own  language. 

Necessity  of  a  Knowledge  of  History* 

It  should  be  taught  as  a  methodical  record  of  ira 
portant  events.  To  every  American  citizen  some 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  his  country  is  useful ; 
he  should  know  of  the  founding,  progress  and 
growth  of  liberty  in  his  own  country.  Towards  the 
preservation  of  good  government  and  the  permanency 
of  our  institutions,  it  is  necessary  that  the  principles 
of  government  and  the  leading  events  of  history  be 
taught  in  our  American  schools. 

The  idea  of  national  unity  and  patriotism  should 
rise  above  the  stripes  of  party  and  the  turmoils  of  war, 
and  plant  itself  as  the  one  thing  vital  to  American 


METHODS  OF  XE ACHING.  815 

institutions.  That  the  subject  of  history  may  secure 
attention  from  the  teacher,  and  study  from  the 
pupils,  is  the  sincere  wish  of  every  loyal  American 

citizen. 

Alethods  of  Teaching  History. 

I.  Directions. 

1.  Interest  the  pupils  by  a  familiar  talk. 

2.  Examine  the  lessons  with  the  pupils. 

8.  Draw  maps  and  locate  important  places. 

4.  Let  the  maps  be  examined  and  criticised. 

5.  Bring  out  the  prominent,  salient  facts,  with 
clearness. 

6.  Require  pupils  to  classify  and  tabulate  the 
lesson,  and  recite  from  the  tabulation. 

7.  Do  not  require  dates  too  freely. 

8.  Let  the  pupils  state  the  causes  of  the  different 
wars,  and  their  effects. 

9.  Teach  history  as  a  methodical  record  of  im- 
portant events. 

10.  An  Objective  Representation  should  be  given 
by  means  of  maps  and  charts ;  drawings  and  diagrams 
should  be  placed  on  the  board  of  all  the  important 
matters  in  the  history  of  the  nation. 

History,  (Model  Form.) 

/.  Directions 

1.  What  event  ? 

2.  What  causes  ? 

3.  What  battle? 

4.  What  time? 
6.  What  place? 

6.  What  persons  f 


814 


HISTORY. 


7.  What  means  ? 

8.  What  losses  ? 

9.  What  results? 

Taking  the  directions  for  the  model  form,  we  have 
the  following  lesson :  History  of  the  Battle  of  Bunker 

Em. 

1.  What  event  ?    Revolutionary  War. 

f  1.  Rights  of  arbitrary 
government  claimed 
'  1.   Remote  -!      by  the  British. 

2.  Character     of    the 
i.  What  causes?  \  [     King  George  III. 


j  1.  Importation  Act. 
{2.  St 


Direct. 

Stamp  Act. 

8.  What  Battle?    Bunker  Hill. 

4.  What  time?    1775,  June  17th. 

5.  What  place?    Breed's  Hill. 

'  American 
Generals. 


6.  What  persons  ? . 


(a)  Gen.  Ward. 

(b)  Gen.  Prescott. 

(c)  Gen.  Putnam. 

(d)  Gen.  Warren. 


f  (a)  Gen.  Gage. 
British  (b)  Gen.  Howe. 

Generals.-^  (c)  Gen  Clinton. 
f  (d)  Gen.  Bur- 
L  goyne 


n    -on,  <         „„  9  j  !•  American— limited. 
7.  What  means  ?  J2>  Bl.ili9h_uniimited. 


8.  What  losses? 


1.  American — 

115  killed,  305  wounded 
and  32  prisoners. 

2.  British— 

1054  killed  and  wounded. 


9.  What  results? 


HE  VIEWS.  31  ft 

1.  Remote — 
Gaining  our  Inde- 

1.  American.  \  pendence. 

2.  Direct- 

Encouraging. 
1.  Remote — 

0    -n  •  Defeated. 

2-   Bntl8h'     1  2.  Direct- 
Discouraging. 

This  model  form  may  apply  to  a  period  of  our 
country's  history,  or  to  a  battle  of  that  period. 

Associate,  as  far  as  possible,  geographical  knowl- 
edge with  the  historical. 

Tabulated  Forms. 

1.  Discoveries  and  Explorations. 

2.  Settlements. 

8.  Wars  and  Adjustment  of  rival  claims,  .culmi- 
nating in  the  birth  of  the  nation. 
4.  Period  of  Presidents. 

Reviews. 

1.  Chronological. 

2.  Biographical. 

3.  Geographical. 

The  review  should  take  three  distinct  forms.  In  the 
Chronological,  the  pupil  should  state  all  of  the  prin- 
cipal dates  ;  in  the  Biographical  all  that  has  been 
learned  in  regard  to  particular  individuals;  and  iu  the 
Geographical,  whatever  he  can  state  of  all  important 
facts  relating  to  the  history  of  a  locality. 

These  reviews  may  be  made  spirited  exercises,  by 
requesting  the  class  to  write  a  few  of  the  essential 
dates,  the  sequence  of  important  events,  the  names 


816  HISTORY. 

of  important  individuals.  The  system  of  the  re- 
views above  suggested  must,  if  faithfully  carried  out, 
result  in  a  thorough  unifying  of  the  general  subject 

of  history. 

Incidental  Lessons. 

Many  of  the  facts  of  history  may  be  given  in  read- 
ing, and  especially  in  geography  lessons.  Such  facts 
would  embrace  pictures  of  social  condition,  growth 
of  manufactures  and  of  populous  districts,  actions 
that  have  made  celebrated,  particular  places,  and  in- 
cidents in  the  lives  of  remarkable  men. 

Such  facts  are  to  be  given  that  the  mind,  furnished 
with  some  of  the  material  of  history,  may  pursue 
with  more  advantage  to  itself  its  systematic  study. 

Lessons  on  any  subject  are  thus  more  adhesive  than 
when  given  to  a  mind  entirely  ignorant  of  it. 

REMARKS. — In  all  your  teaching  the  principle  of 
proceeding  from  the  known  to  the  unknown  must 
be  followed.  A  clear  picture  of  the  present  must  be 
drawn,  embracing,  in  their  order,  all  of  the  above 
particulars.  The  method,  whatever  it  may  be, 
should  quicken  the  pupils'  observation,  and  lead 
them  to  see  some  importance  in  the  matters  of  every- 
day life.  Every  succeeding  lesson  should  bring  up 
vividly  the  condition  of  man  in  the  past,  and  com- 
pare it,  in  its  several  particulars,  with  things  now. 
This  will  make  more  and  more  evident  how  great 
has  been  the  change,  and  how  much  for  the  better. 
The  pupils  should  see  how  events,  both  great  and 
•mall,  have  contributed  to  the  prosperity  and  the 
advancement  of  the  people. 


CUL Tl  VA  TE  TILE  INTELLECT.  317 


Aim  in    Teaching  History. 

The  aim  might  be  to  cultivate  the  intellect,  for 
which  it  has  rich  and  varied  matter  adapted  to  exer- 
cise each  of  its  faculties. 

The  aim  in  teaching  history  should  be  to  inculcate 
those  moral  lessons  which  it  is  the  office  of  history  to 
teach  by  example.  What,  for  instance,  could  be 
better  adapted  to  produce  a  spirit  of  contentment  and 
thankfulness,  than  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  present 
conditiqn  of  our  country,  with  its  superiority  over 
that  of  other  nations  ?  What  better  opportunity  can 
be  desired  for  showing  and  enforcing  the  necessity  of 
character  and  skilled  industry  than  is  afforded,  while 
tracing  the  improvements  and  the  progress  of  oar 
nation  for  the  past  one  hundred  years? 


ELEMENTARY  NATURAL 
SCIENCE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Can  the  Natural  Sciences  be  profitably  taught  to 
the  average  pupils  in  our  schools  ?  Our  first  inquiry 
leads  us  to  distinguish  between  the  natural  and  the 
artificial  studies  to  which  the  children  are  introduced. 

The  child's  mind  is  an  instrument  for  acquiring 
rather  than  using  knowledge.  He  voluntarily  begins 
the  study  of  "nature.  Here  he  goes  to  school  long 
before  his  parents  send  him.  He  touches  with  child- 
hand  many  forces,"  and  tries  to  grasp  them.  His 
studies  are  natural,  for  they  are  in  the  order  of  his 
mental  devdopement.  Study  is  play ;  play  is  study. 
The  objective  part  of  mathematics  unfolds  to  him 
the  shapes  and  numbers  of  things.  He  begins  physics 
with  the  weight  of  his  toy,  or  watching  the  ripple 
and  dash  of  brook,  or  the  whirl  of  the  water  wheel. 
He  opens  his  botany  when  he  plucks  a  flower,  dis- 
tinguishing color  and  form.  He  notices  the  material 
of  rocks,  and  gathers  various  stones  like  a  zealous 
mineralogist. 

A  child  confined  as  most  of  our  pupils  are  to  the 
reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  method  of  discipline, 


FACTS  BEFORE  LOGIC.  319 

might  as  well  be  brought  up  in  a  desert  as  in  the 
world  of  beauty  and  power  which  surrounds  him. 
His  eyes  are  gradually  closed  to  a  thousand  alluring 
truths;  his  ears  are  dulled  to  the  myriad  voices  cf 
nature.  It  is  a  just  inference  from  these  considera- 
tions, and  an  acknowledged  fact,  that,  to  a  majority 
of  pupils  in  the  public  schools,  the  acquiring  of 
knowledge  is  uninteresting  and  positively  irksome. 

But  right  teaching  requires  that  the  child's  powers 
of  knowing  accurately,  should  be  developed,  and 
hence  should  begin  and  largely  continue  with  hia 
senses.  Words  and  number,  over  which  so  much  time 
is  spent  in  reading,  spelling  and  arithmetical  problems, 
are  valuable  to  his  mental  development,  as  they  are 
associated  with  things  really  known.  Hence  the  ele- 
ments of  science  furnish  the  proper  material  for  such 
study.  Knowledge  is  not  power  to  the  child,  if  it  is 
abstract.  He  cannot  use  knowledge  which  lies  be- 
yond the  sphere  of  his  daily  observation  and  experi- 
ence. What  the  State  needs  is  intelligent  citizens, 
and  intelligent  youth  from  whom  they  can  be  made. 
These  come  of  the  power  of  knowing  and  judging 
accurately.  We  claim  for  the  Natural  Sciences  this 
effect  on  the  child.  They  deal  with  facts  more  sen- 
sible than  those  of  arithmetic.  The  parts  of  a  leaf 
or  a  flower  are  definite,  easily  comprehended,  and 
classified  with  certainty.  This  is  true  of  the  nat  vn 
and  species  of  the  common  animals,  shells  and  ~- 
tects,  the  constituents  of  a  stone,  the  qualities  of  au 
acid  or  gas,  the  history  of  a  rock  traced  in  forms  of 
life,  the  nature  and  effect  even  of  geological  changes. 

No  wide  range  of  knowledge  is  required  to  under- 


320         +LEMENTAR?  NATURAL  SCIENCE. 

Btand  definitely  and  surely  scientific  facts  simply  pre- 
sented to  the  youthful  mind.  It  easily  comprehends 
them  as  a  whole.  We  claim,  therefore,  that  to  what- 
ever degree  the  reasoning  faculties  should  be  devel- 
oped Ho  furnish  the  child-mind  with  power,  this  is 
best  secured  by  its  reasoning  on  facts  and  things 
rather  than  on  ideas  of  the  imagination,  01  history, 
or  morals,  to  which  children's  studies  are  usually 
confined.  The  last  knowledge  gained  by  man  is  the 
correct  understandini  f  fcuman  nature,  or  the  causes 
of  uman  actions.  The  sciences  teach  the  relations 
of  cause  aud  ef^ct  in  their  clearest  manifestatK  as. 
With  enlarged  ^oIUDrehension  the  child  may  learn 
the  secondary  character  of  causes  He  will  trace 
their  relation  «o  e^cts  with  the  certainty  of  convic- 
tion to  his  mind.  Thence  will  be  imparted  the  ele- 
ment of  fositivf^ess  to  the  pupil's  acquirement  and 
habits  of  chUi-acter.  He  learns  to  act  unwaveringly 
on  what  he  knows,  and  to  know  positively  that  upon 
which  be  acts.  Correcting  by  his  own  observations 
««  conclusion  to  which  he  is  lead  by  the  inductive 
methods  of  science,  he  gains  independence  in  thought 
with  that  confidence  «i  his  own  powers  of  judging 
which  are  Im*  safeguards  iu  his  character  and  of  his 
rights  as  a  freeman  under  our  republican  institutions. 
Thus  early  introduced  to  the  elements  cf  science, 
the  foundations  of  his  character  as  a  citizen  are  more 
broadly  laid.  The  child  becomes  more  excursive  in 
thought,  more  inventive  through  familiarity  with  the 
mechanisms  of  nature,  and  more  appreciative  of  the 
wealth  and  beauty  of  his  country's  resources.  Taught 
to  observe,  te  never  ceases  to  be  affected  by  the 


SEO  ULD  IT  BE  TA  UOHT  >  321 


changing  lines  and  hues  in  nature  which  his  daily 
vision  embraces,  and  the  elements  of  a  true  esthetic 
culture  find  place  in  him  which  will  add  to  his  cer- 
tain worth  and  power  as  a  citizen.  The  old  idea  that 
knowledge  is  for  discipline  is  faithfully  maintained 
in  our  education.  Yet  knowledge  is  one  of  the  nat- 
ural desires  of  the  mind.  The  true  science  of  educa- 
tion will  make  it  a  pleasure.  This  will  require  for 
the  senses  larger  opportunity  than  they  now  enjoy 
Moreover,  we  owe  to  the  State  and  its  free  institu 
tions,  to  raise  the  standard  of  intelligence  and  cul- 
ture among  the  people,  among  mechanics,  farmers, 
merchants,  and  laborers  in  the  mill  or  the  street.  A 
discernment  of  the  true  nature  and  qualities  of  things 
in  their  daily  use  will  secure  this  far  better  than  drills 
in  spelling,  arithmetic  and  grammar.  The  mass  of 
our  citizens  are  not  intelligent  enough  to  understand 
one-half  the  instruction  contained  in  a  good  weekly 
newspaper. 

We  make,  therefore,  this  demand  for  the  sciences 
—first,  that  they  have  an  equal  place  with  the  usual 
studies  of  primary  and  grammar  and  district  schools  ; 
secondly,  that  our  teachers  be  required  to  make  plain 
the  elements  of  the  sciences  to  pupils  below  fourteen 
years  of  age,  at  the  expense  of  rote-drills  and  prob- 
lems in  arithmetic,  grammatical  analysis,  spelling 
without  definitions,  and  the  time  spent  in  preparing 
for  pretentious  written  examinations,  imposed  at  too 
early  an  age,  that  have  become  one  of  the  worst 
abuses  of  an  artificial  system  in  public-school  woik. 

We  are  concerned  next  with  the  methods  of  teach 
*og  these  sciences  in  district.schools,  or  grades  below 


322       ELEMENTARY  NA T USA L  BCIENCk. 

the  high  school.  The  efforts  of  authors  of  element- 
ary text-books  in  science  are  not  entirely  successful; 
most  of  them  are  still  too  technical.  There  is  less 
vividness  in  the  statement  of  the  facts  of  science,  less 
personification  and  idealizing  of  the  study  than  a 
child's  apprehension  demands.  The  ancients  taught 
their  children  the  forces  and  sounds  and  shapes  of 
the  waters  and  fields  and  forests,  by  personifications 
of  nymphs  and  dryads,  gods  and  godesses,  in  -whose 
histories  and  habits  they  were  personally  interested. 
So  should  the  stories  of  insects,  fishes,  mollusks, 
birds,  and  well-known  animals,  or  of  plants  and 
stones,  be  told  without  text-books  by  the  teacher,  with 
scientific  truthfulness  as  to  their  modes  of  life  and 
motion.  Thus  children  would  become  familiar  with 
their  living  forms.  With  text-books  still  defective, 
the  teacher's  opportunity  lies  in  what  President  Hill 
calls  the  incidental  method.  Let  her  have  specimens 
of  minerals,  leaves,  insects,  flowers,  pictures  of  birds 
and  animals,  and  simple  apparatus  for  illustrating 
chemical  and  physical  forces,  in  order  to  make  real 
to  her  classes  the  subjects  of  the  lesson.  By  a  hun- 
dred well-selected  stereoscopic  pictures  she  could 
teach  physical  and  political  geography  as  effectively 
as  the  shapes,  circles,  and  seasons  of  the  earth  by  a 
globe.  Thus  the  text-book  in  the  hands  of  a  sugges- 
tive and  excursive  teacher  will  become  secondary  to 
her  personal  power  to  make  knowledge  real  and  in- 
teresting to  the  youngest  pupils  in  her  classes.  Yet 
the  text-book  in  science  will  give  the  study  equal 
dignity  to  the  arithmetic  in  the  mind  of  the  scholar, 


PURPOSES  Of  OBJECT  TEACHING.        323 

•while  it  corrects  the  unscientific  or  garrulous  ten- 
dencies of  the  teacher. 

Moreover,  no  other  studies  will  so  naturally  develop 
the  personal  power  of  the  teacher.  Proceeding 
by  the  method  of  nature,  step  by  step  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown,  she  will  awaken  enthusiasm 
in  the  class,  and  from  the  fulness  of  her  devotion  to 
the  subject  there  will  be  an  overflow  into  the  minds 
of  the  pupils.  Rote-teaching  in  these  elements  of 
science  is  utterly  defenceless.  Every  class  of  facts 
and  every  principle  involved  should  have  illustration 
from  the  wide  range  of  nature.  The  living  way  of 
Sauveur  in  language,  should  be  applied  to  the  scien- 
ces. Every  sense  and  power  of  the  child  can  be 
grasped  and  applied  to  them  by  the  live  teacher. 

Chief  Purposes  of  Object  Lessoos. 

The  chief  purposes  of  the  object  lessons  are  two: 
first,  to  cultivate  habits  of  careful  observation  and 
reflection ;  and  second,  to  give  facility  in  oral  de- 
scription. When  properly  given  they  involve  the 
systematic  discipline  of  the  perceptive  faculties  and 
of  the  judgement,  the  imagination  and  the  memory  01 
facts,  and  in  the  use  of  language. 

The  method  that  should  be  pursued  is  that  known 
as  the  objective  method.  This  presents  two  distinct 
though  intimately  related  departments;  perceptive 
teaching,  in  which  the  object,  as  an  acorn,  an  egg,  a 
leaf,  or  a  piece  of  coal,  is  directly  presented  to  the 
pupil's  senses;  and  conceptive  teaching  in  which  im- 
pressions previously  received  are  recalled,  arranged 
and  utilized,  the  objects  themselves  being  presented 


324        ELEMENTARY  NATURAL  SCIENCE. 

to  the  senses  during  the  lesson.  A  lesson  upon  an 
oak,  an  elephant,  or  a  thunder  storm  would  fall 
under  the  latter  department.  The  use  of  pictures, 
models,  or  other  sensible  representations  of  objects, 
is  an  important  combination  and  modification  of 
the  two  departments. 

Definitions  should  be  very  sparingly  introduced,  and 
never  in  the  first  stages  of  a  subject.  If  given  at  all, 
they  should  sum  up  knowledge  already  attained. 
They  should  be  as  brief  as  possible  and  shonld  be 
carefully  prepared  for  by  a  process  at  once  inductive 
and  objective.  The  words  organic,  inorganic,  vege- 
table, animal  acd  mineral,  are  prominent  among  the 
very  few  terms  requiring  definition.  In  every  stage 
of  the  lessons,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  indispen- 
sable definitions,  the  language  used  by  the  pupil 
should  be  entirely  his  own,  and  all  set  forms  of 
words  should  be  carefully  avoided.  "Familiar  ob- 
jects," and  familiar  animals,  plants  and  minerals 
should  take  precedence  of  all  others  in  the  selection 
of  topics. 

The  process  employed  will  necessarily  present  two 
distinct  stages  in  accordance  with  the  two  chief  pur- 
poses of  these  lessons  already  referred  to.  The  first 
may  be  called  the  analytic  or  preparatory,  and  fur- 
nishes the  principal  discipline  of  the  powers  of  ob- 
servation and  reflection.  In  this  stage,  which  is  largely 
conversational,  the  teacher  leads  the  pupils  by  ques- 
tions or  otherwise  to  discover  or  remember  the  prop- 
erties or  peculiarities  of  an  object,  or  to  state  any 
other  important  facts  associated  with  it.  The  points 
thus  considered  should  be  written  upon  the  black- 


CA  UT10NS  AS  TO  OBJECT  LESSONS.        335 

board  in  v^ry  brief  synoptical  form,  but  each  only 
after  it  has  been  dwelt  upon. 

The  vital  element  in  this  part  of  the  work,  that 
which  gives  it  a  living  interest  to  the  pupil,  is  the 
discovery  or  learning  of  new  facts  or  the  gaining  of 
new  ideas  about  the  object  under  consideration.  It 
is  evident  that  from  the  nature  of  the  case  this  im- 
portant element  must  be  chiefly  limited  to  the  first 
presentation  of  the  object.  Reviews,  although  for 
certain  purposes  indispensable,  soon  become,  at  least 
as  far  as  this  element  is  concerned,  much  like  "  a 
thrice-told  tale."  This  makes  it  all  the  more  import- 
ant that  the  teacher  should  have -an  outline  of  the 
lesson  carefully  prepared  beforehand,  so  as  to  be  sure 
to  include  the  points  most  likely  to  be  interesting 
and  instructive.  Any  additional  point  or  fact  after- 
wards drawn  from  the  class  may  be  readily  incor- 
porated. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  effort  to 
"develop  the  perceptive  powers"  of  children  has 
its  limit,  especially  when  applied  to  large  classes.  In 
teaching  a  little  group  of  four  or  five,  comparatively 
little  difficulty  should  be  found  by  the  skilful  teacher. 
But  when  the  class  ranges  in  number  from  forty  to 
«ixty  in  the  grammar  school,  and  to  seventy-five  in 
the  primary,  and  when  at  the  same  time  owing  to  the 
pressure  of  the  other  and  more  directly  important 
exercises  of  a  graded  school  the  time  given  to  oral 
lessons  is  limited  to  a  very  few  minutes,  it  is  very 
evident  that  the  problem  is  a  very  different  and  a 
much  more  formidable  one. 

In  the  first  lesson  upon  any  given  object  or  phe- 


826         ELEMENTARY  NATURAL  SCIENCE. 


nomenon,  unless  great  care  is  taken  to  prevent  it,  a 
few  pupils  of  naturally  quick  perceptions  will  give 
most  of  the  responses,  and  the  rest  of  the  class  wil. 
thus  be  as  really  ' '  told  "  by  their  classmates  as  if  tbt\ 
information  had  been  given  by  the  teacher. 

It  is  true  that  in  both  cases  there  is  an  exercise  o» 
the  perceptive  faculties ;  but  it  is  .obvious  that  thf 
mental  condition  in  which  we  follow  and  verify  t 
statement  made  by  another  is  usually  one  of  far  less 
vigorous  and  profitable  activity  than  that  in  which 
we  discover  a  fact  of  ourselves.  The  former  may  be 
called  the  perception  of  discovery,  the  latter  the  per- 
ception of  verification.  Nevertheless,  from  the  very 
nature  and  condition  of  class-teaching,  the  lower  and 
less  profitable  form  of  the  mental  exercise  will  be 
the  'predominating  one.  The  methods  of  reducing 
this  evil  to  a  practical  minimum  will  be  obvious  to 
the  experienced  teacher.  It  is  also  well  for  us  to 
consider  how  large  a  part  of  what  we  call  our  own 
knowledge  has  become  ours  only  through  our  verify- 
ing the  statements  and  perceptions  of  others. 

The  processes  and  results  of  this  first  or  preparatory 
stage  of  the  work,  important  and  interesting  as  they 
may  be,  are  entirely  subordinate  to  the  second  stage. 
The  preparatory  stage  collects  the  material  for  the 
work  that  is  to  follow  :  the  lumber,  lime,  bricks  and 
stone  for  the  edifice  that  is  now  to  be  constructed 

with  them. 

Subject— Salt. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  subject  of  our  lesson  is 
Bait.  The  teacher  has  given  the  lesson  with  due  at- 
tention to  the  requirements  of  the  objective  method. 


OBJECT  LESSON:   SALT.  327 

The  qualities,  as  learned  by  the  senses,  the  kinds,  uses 
and  sources  of  salt  have  been  considered.  To  these 
points  have  been  added  the  chief  source  of  our  own 
supply,  the  singular  fact  that  it  is  a  mineral  food,  its 
necessity  to  the  health  of  the  body,  a  brief  reference 
to  its  ancient  use  as  a  symbol  of  hospitality  and  to 
certain  superstitions  which  stilL  cling  to  it,  together 
•with  such  other  simple  and  interesting  facts  as  seemed 
appropriate. 

In  that  stage  of  the  lesson  which  we  have  now 
reached,  the  chief  discipline  is  of  the  memory  of 
facts.  "What  do  you  know  or  remember  about 
salt  ?"  should  be  the  teacher's  only  question,  except 
when  an  error  is  made  in  the  statement  of  facts, 
when  a  proper  question  or  two  should  lead  to  its 
correction,  not  by  the  teacher,  but  by  the  class.  The 
points  as  written  upon  the  blackboard  in  the  order 
in  which  the  pupils  remember  them  will  be  some- 
thing like  the  following,  omitting  the  prefixed 
numerals,  which  will  presently  be  explained : 

Salt. 

S.  Taste,  9.  Springs,  6.  Made  into  Soda, 

4.  Seasoning,  10.  Ocean,  2.  Soluble, 

1.  White,  11.  Sparkling,       13.  Hospitality, 

7.  Kinds,  12.  Granular,        14.  Superstitions, 

8.  Mines,  5.  Preserves  meat  and  fish. 

The  next  step  is  to  have  the  class,  not  the  teacher, 
condense  and  arrange  this  miscellaneous  list  of  items 
into  a  brief  and  orderly  synopsis.  This  is  a  point  of 
prime  importance,  but  is  so  simple  in  practice  that 
any  ordinary  class  will  need  but  one  illustration  in 
order  to  apply  the  principle.  With  beginners  this 


328       ELEMENTARY  NATURAL  SCIENCE. 

will  be  best  understood  by  illustrating  with  some 
short  story — one  well-known  to  the  pupils  is  best. 
Whittington  and  his  Cat  would  do  admirably.  Write 
the  chief  points  of  the  legend  on  the  blackboard  in 
brief,  synoptical  form,  but  in  an  absurdly  illogical 
order : 

"  Whittiugton — a.  chest  of  gold — goes  to  sea — born 
in  London — Mayor — cat  given  him— dies  respected — 
poor  boy,  etc  ,  etc." 

If  now  the  teacher  will  begin  to  tell  the  story,  fol- 
lowing the  exact  order  of  the  synopsis,  the  class  will 
soon  object,  and  may  readily  be  led  to  number  the 
items  in  the  order  in  which  they  should  be  stated  in 
telling  the  story. 

A  very  little  practice  will  enable  a  class  to  number 
the  items  relating  to  salt  substantially  as  they  are 
numbered  in  the  synopsis  already  given.  When 
fhese  are  arranged  according  to  the  principles  of 
object  teaching,  they  will  condense  into — 

Salt. 

1.  Qualities— 3  :  White;  soluble;  saline  taste. 

2.  Kinds— 8  :  Rock  ;  bay  ;  table. 

3.  Uses — 8:  Seasoning;  preserving  meat,  etc. ;  soda. 

4.  Sources — 3  :  Mines ;  springs  ;  ocean. 

5.  Associations — 2  :  Hospitality  ;  superstitions. 

In  making  up  a  final  synopsis  such  as  this,  great 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  overload  a  subject  by  a 
multiplicity  of  details.  To  accomplish  this,  only  (he 
m  )st  important  items  of  the  irregular  synopsis  should 
be  taken,  'io  attempt  more  is  to  cause  the  lesson  to 
break  of  its  own  weight.  Most  of  the  objects  rr"p- 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  OBJECT  LESSONS.     329 

erly  selected  as  the  basis  of  the  lessons  of  the  lower 
grades  may  readily  be  reduced  to  from  seven  to  ten 
items.  The  smaller  the  number  the  better. 

Now  what  use  is  to  be  made  of  this  synopsis  ?  It 
is  obvious  that  if  the  pupil  has  the  synopsis  before 
him  on  the  blackboard  and  is  called  upon  to  state 
without  being  questioned  what  he  knows  about  salt, 
the  synopsis  will  be  to  him  a  brief  set  of  arranged 
BUggestions  or  notes,  and  that  with  a  little  practice  he 
will  be  able  with  its  aid  to  make  a  "  continuous  oral 
statement."  But  a  much  more  important  use  can  be 
made  of  this  synopsis. 

The  next  step  is  to  train  the  class  to  reproduce  it 
for  themselves.  This  will  be  found  to  be  of  great 
practical  importance,  and  is  indeed  indispensable. 
The  memory  will  now  be  called  into  exercise  to  re- 
member the  facts  and  the  brief  notes  with  which, 
they  are  associated.  The  judgment  will  be  trained 
to  arrange  them  in  their  logical  order  of  sequence. 
When  by  many  lessons  this  has  been  made  a  mental 
habit,  tht  mUaence  of  the  training  will  be  felt  upon 
all  the  other  school  lessons,  as  well  as  through  life. 
There  are  several  ways  of  accomplishing  this  step  of 
reproducing  the  synopsis.  The  following  is  one  of 
the  most  simple,  expeditious  and  efficient.  Skilful 
teachers  will  readily  devise  methods  of  their  own  : 

First—  Write  the  seven  to  ten  or  more  items  upon 
the  blackboard  in  their  proper  order.  This  has 
already  been  determined  by  the  pupil.  Place  its 
proper  number  before  each  item. 

Second — Tell  the  pupils  to  look  carefully  at  the 
items  and  try  to  remember  them,  and  that  you  will 


830       ELEMENT AE  Y  NA  TURAL  SCIENCE. 

presently  require  them  to  be  written  in  the  same  way 
npon  the  slates  and  from  memory. 

Third — Cover  the  synopsis  with  a  newspaper  or 
the  convenient  screen,  and  at  a  given  signal  let  the 
pupils  try  to  reproduce  it  upon  their  slates. 

Fourth — Call  upon  one  to  read  what  he  has  written, 
and  let  the  rest  of  the  class,  without  looking  upon 
their  slates,  tell  what  he  has  omitted  or  what  error 
he  has  made.  Then  give  all  a  brief  opportunity  to 
correct  and  complete.  Have  the  slates  cleaned,  and 
try  once  or  twice  more,  if  necessary,  until  a  reason- 
ably correct  result  is  obtained.  Clean  the  synopsis 
from  the  blackboard. 

Fifth — The  final  step  is  obvious.  It  is  that  for 
which  all  that  precedes  has  been  the  preparation.  Let 
a  sufficient  number  of  pupils  be  called  upon  one  after 
another  to  make  a  connected  oral  statement  of  such 
facts  and  ideas  as  each  can  properly  recall,  glancing 
from  time  to  time,  as  he  may  find  it  necessary,  at  the 
synopsis  upon  his  slate. 

Specimen  Object  Lesson. 
The  Bear —  Use  Pictures. 

Special  points  to  be  developed. 

Parts  — Broad  head ;  strong,  clumsy  body,  covered 
with  long  coarse  hair;  stout  thick  legs,  short  tail ;  large, 
slightly  pointed  ears;  small,  bright  eyes;  front  teeth 
in  both  jaws;  canine  teeth  (two  in  each  jaw),  long, 
strong  and  slightly  curved  backwards;  molars  broad 
and  surmounted  with  tubercles;  five  toes  on  each 
foot,  each  having  a  long,  stout  curved  claw  or  nail, 
fitted  for  digging  or  climbing  (not  retractile).  Sole  o/ 
*oot  naked ;  simple  stomach. 


OBJECT  LESSON:    THE  BEAR.  831 

Habits. 

Eats  animal  and  vegetable  food  ;  walks  on  its  flat 
feet  (hence  called  plantigrade) ;  climbs  trees,  noc- 
turnal ;  stands  readily  on  hind  feet ;  uses  fore  feet  for 
defence  by  striking  or  hugging. 
Uses. 

Flesh,  leather,  fur,  curiosity. 

Dwell  on  adaptation  of  parts  to  habits  and  uses. 
Miscellaneous  and  Popular. 

Cunning,  unsocial  ;  spends  the  winter  in  caves  in 
hollow  trees,  almost  without  f*od ;  dangerous  and 
formidable  ;  sometimes  called  Bruin.  (Why  ?) 

A  few  lessons  should  be  given  with  the  use  of  pic- 
tures, upo'n  the  lion,  tiger,  wolf,  fox,  raccoon.  The 
cat,  dog  and  bear  being  the  types  of  the  families  to 
which  they  respectively  belong,  the  matter  furnished 
above  will  serve  in  all  essential  particulars  for  class- 
ifying the  other  animals. 

Give  lessons  on  likenesses  and  differences  ;  from 
the  former  get  the  idea  and  term  carnivorous,  and 
from  the  latter  the  following  : 

{Cat  family. 
Beit   " 
X     " 

NOTB. — The  other  families  of  this  order  are  not 
given,  because  to  attempt  so  much  would  defeat  the 
object  of  the  lessons. 
Models  for  identifying  or  describing  : 

Oral. 

The  lion  is  a  wild,  ferocious,  toe-walking  animal 
that  belongs  to  the  cat  family  of  carnivorous  animal* 


832       ELEMENTARY  NATURAL  SCIENCE. 


Written. 
Wild. 

Digitigrade.         )  «  .  fflmilv 
Claws  retractile.  \  Uat  lamily' 


Carniverous 

Animals.      Front  teeth  in  both  jaws.' 
Canine,    long   hooked, 

fitted  for  tearing.         l_. 
Molars,  uneven,  sharp,  f  Carnivorous. 

fitted  for  cutting. 
Simple  stomach. 

After  each  animal  studied  has  been  identified  ac- 
cording to  plans  given,  and  a  general  talk  had  upon 
the  whole  order,  a  composition  should  be  written 
upon  the  subject,  Carnivorous  Animals. 

Several  weeks  may  be  spent  profitably  upon  a  com 
parison  of  Herbivorous  and  Carnivorous  animals. 

The  following  points  are  suggested : 

Kinds  of  teeth.  -  -  Kinds  of  food. 


Kinds  of  stomachs. 

Shape  and  comparative 
size  of  trunks,  espec- 
ially the  abdominal 
region. 

Acuteness  of  senses. 


Pliability    of 
structure. 


osseous 


\     \ 


Nature  of  food. 


Quantity  of  food. 


j  Manner  of  obtaining 
I     food. 

Manner  of  obtaining 
food. 


FORMULA  FOR  OBJECT  LESSONS.        333 

Freedom  of  motion  of)          j  Manner  of  obtaining 
the  limbs.  (     food. 

f  General  habits  ,man- 
ner  of  obtaining, 
food. 

Muscular  power.             1  f  obstacles  to  be  oyer- 

tKe  mve.)                     ,  >  -    •<      come  in  obtaining 

Limbs  as   weapons   of  f  food, 
offence  or  defence.      J 

The  animal  in  each  or-' 

der  most  remote  from  I  •&    A  n*  *\*  \  -  A  \ 

the  type.  f     '       Food,  (both  kinds.) 

(Hog,  bear.) 

The  work  indicated  by  this  paper  will  require  more 
time  than  that  of  the  preceding  papers, 

General  Formula. 

I.  Directions* 

1.  Let  the  pupils  describe  the  apparatus. 

2.  Let  the  pupils  perform  the  experiments. 
8.  Let  the  pupils  announce  the  experiments. 

4.  Use  simple  objects  and  illustrations. 

5.  Proceed  by  rudimentary  facts. 

6.  Proceed  by  individual  cases  to  deduce  laws. 

7.  Let  the  principles  be  developed  by  the  pupils. 

8.  Let  the  pupils  perceive  that  we  arrive  at  results 
by  three  different  ways  :  1st,  by  observation  ;  3d,  by 
experiment;  3d,  by  effects. 

II.  Cautions. 

1.  Speak  slowly. 

2.  Repeat  carefully. 


«34       ELEMENT 'AE T NATURAL  SCIENCE. 

3.  Use  simple  language. 

4.  Write  points  on  the  board. 

5.  Require  pupils  to  copy. 

6.  Keep  close  to  the  subject. 

7.  Require  pupils  to  answer  in  complete  statements. 

8.  Repeat  experiments  and  illustrations. 

9.  Reproduce  each  lesson  carefully. 

10.  Never  use  a  term  that  has  not  been  fully  devel- 
oped. 

11.  Guide  the  pupil's  thoughts,  but  do  not  lead  them. 

12.  Arrange  a  definite  plan. 

18.  Work  so  as  to  secure  and  hold  attention. 
14.  Let  your  object  be  to  guide  pupils  to  see  clearly 
and  infer  correctly. 

General  Formula. 

I.  Objects  should  be  presented, 

1.  To  the  senses,  or  perception. 

2.  To  tiie  reflective  or  reasoning  powers. 

8.  Their  features  should  be  thoroughly  memorized. 

II.  Ideas  are  developed, 

1.  By  appealing  to  the  senses. 

2.  By  comparison. 
8.  By  experiment. 
4.  By  reason. 

Lesson  on  Divisibility* 

The  teacher  should  have  on  the  table  different  arti- 
cles, as  slips  of  wood,  a  lump  of  coal,  piece  of 
glass,  brick,  stone,  etc.,  glass  jar  containing  water, 
cochineal,  carmine,  etc. 


LESSON  ON  DIVISIBILITY.  335 

First,  let  the  pupils  describe  the  articles,  as  "  You 
hold  in  your  hand  a  piece  of  pine  wood  ten  inches 
in  length,  two  inches  in  breadth  and  one-half  an  inch 
in  thickness."  See  that  they  express  the  truth  and 
use  accurate  language. 

"You  hold  in  your  hand  a  lump  of  coal  about  as 
large  as  a  hen's  egg." 

"You  have  in  your  hand  a  piece  of  a  brick  about 
four  inches  in  length,  four  inches  in  breadth,  and  two 
inches  in  thickness." 

"  You  hold  in  your  hand  a  glass  jar  containing  one 
quart  of  clear  water,"  etc.,  etc. 

The  teacher  may  now  place  in  the  hands  of  the 
pupil  a  small  slip  of  wood  and  tell  him  to  do  some- 
thing with  it.  The  pupil  will  either  break,  cut  or 
split  it.  The  teacher  will  ask  him  to  observe  what  he 
has  done  with  it.  The  pupil  will  answer,  "  I  have 
broken  it."  The  teacher  will  so  question  the  pupils 
as  to  draw  out  an  answer  similar  to  the  following  : 
"The  wood  may  be  separated  into  parts." 

Again,  the  teacher  will  request  one  of  the  pupils 
to  take  the  hammer  and  do  something  with  the  coal. 
The  pupil  will  break  it,  and  he  perceives  that  the 
coal  may  be  broken  into  pieces. 
\  The  teacher  will  so  question  the  pupil  as  to  draw 
out  the  following  answer:  "Coal  may  be  separated 
into  parts."  So  proceed  with  the  brick,  glass,  stone, 
iron,  etc.,  and  lastly  take  the  glass  iar  and  put  in  it 
a  few  grains  of  cochineal,  carmine  or  indigo,  and  let 
the  pupils  notice  the  effects.  They  will  say  that  the 
cochineal  is  coloring  the  water  ;  let  them  see  that  the 


836       ELEMENT AB  Y  NA  T  URAL  SCIENCE. 

cochineal  is  separated  into  thousands  of  parts  ;  lead 
them  to  say  that  cochineal  "  may  be  separated  into 
parts. "  The  teacher  should  write  all  the  facts  on  the 
ooard,  and  require  the  pupils  to  spell  the  words.  See 
that  the  children  begin  every  statement  with  a  capi- 
tal letter  and  end  it  with  a  period. 

The  lesson  thus  far  developed  will  appear  on  the 
board  in  the  following  form : 

1.  Wood  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

2.  Coal  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

3.  Glass  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

4.  Brick  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

5.  Iron  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

6.  Cochineal  may  be  separated  into  parts. 
Pupils  should  be  required  to  copy  the  above  neatly, 

and  reproduce  it.  They  should  be  lead  to  perceive 
that  all  objects  may  be  separated  into  parts.  At  this 
stage  ask  them  to  give  a  general  name  to  all  things 
that  they  can  perceive.  They  will  give  the  names  : 
things,  objects,  articles,  substance,  matter, — perhaps 
not  the  latter;  if  they  do  not  give  the  name  matter, 
the  teacher  should  give  it.  Tell  the  pupils  that 
"  matter"  is  the  term  you  wish  them  to  use.  Now 
lead  them  to  perceive  that  that  "  Matter  may  be  sep- 
arated into  parts."  Now  tell  them  that  this  properly 
is  called  by  a  certain  term,  Divisibility,  and  lead  them 
to  develop  the  definition  from  the  knowledge  already 
possessed.  For  example,  that  property  of  matter, 
which  allows  it  to  be  separated  into  parts  is  Divisi- 
bility. 


LESSON  ON  DIVISIBILITY.  391 

The  lesson  will  now  appear  on  the  board  in  the 
following  form : 

1.  Wood  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

2.  Coal  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

3.  Glass  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

4.  Brick  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

5.  Iron  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

6.  Cochineal  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

7.  Musk  may  be  separated  into  parts,  etc. ,  etc. 
General  Law — All  matter  may  be  separated  into 

parts. 

Definition— Divisibility  is  that  property  of  matter 
which  allows  it  to  be  separated  into  parts. 

The  pupils  should  memorize  the  General  Law  and 
Definition.  The  teacher  may  give  extended  informa- 
tion in  relation  to  divisibility,  speaking  of  a  grain  of 
musk,  of  the  small  portions  it  throws  off,  and  of  va- 
rious minerals. 


RECITATIONS. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

As  it  is  considered  more  important  to  digest  what  is 
learned  than  merely  to  acquire  it,  the  manner  of  con- 
ducting a  recitation  becomes  of  the  highest  import- 
ance. It  is  to  be  expected  that  the  pupils  cany 
away  with  them  the  habits  of  mind  that  the  class- 
training  engenders.  The  ability  of  the  teacher  to 
make  each  recitation  a  model  of  the  best  method  of 
investigating  a  subject  and  of  expressing  the  results, 
is  the  highest  recommendation  for  the  position  he 
holds. 

•Disciplitie  Is  only  a  means,  whereas  the  recitation 
is  an  end.  A  failure  here  is  a  failure  altogether.  It 
has  definite  and  rational  aims  to  be  carefully  sought 
after  and  earnestly  pursued.  It  is  the  most  delicate 
part  of  all  tK'i  school  work.  Here  the  teacher  may 
exhibit  skill,  tact,  and  individuality  ;  th>9  inventive 
powers  are  to  be  taxed  to  their  utmost,  in  order  to 
bring  about  the  desired  results. 

Main  Object  of  tliP  Recitation. 

The  main  object  is  to  develop  the  powers  of  the 
pupils,  and  this  development  will  be  attained  in 
proportion  to  the  ability,  capacity,  and  ingenuity  of 
the  teacher. 


METHODS  IN  RECITA  TION. 


The  conditions  of  success  in  school  work  are  as 
fixed  as  the  axioms  of  mathematics.  Intense  interest, 
activity,  self-reliance,  well-directed  effort — these  are 
the  essential  features  of  all  efficient  methods.  Any 
method  of  conducting  recitations  that  embraces 
these  is  a  good  one.  Different  teachers  do  not  always 
succeed  best  with  the  same  method. 

Adaptation  and  variety  are  cardinal  principles  in 
education.  The  safe  rule  is:  Employ  the  method  which 
will  best  enable  you  to  effect  the  desired  results. 

How  to  Conduct  a  Recitation. 

I.     ESSENTIALS. 

7.   £>£  brief  reproduction  of  the  preced*> 
ing  lesson. 

2.  £4  brief  review  of  the  preceding  les=* 
son. 

3.  Rehearsal  and  critical  examination 
of  the  daily  lesson. 

4.  Recapitulation  of  the  daily  lesson. 

5.  <£4dequate  preparation  for  the  ad* 
vanced  lesson. 

II.     OBJECTS  OF  THE  RECITATION. 
7.   She  development  of  the  faculties. 
a.   3 he  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
3.    efts  application  to  the  use  of  life. 


840  RECITATIONS. 

III.    ENDS  OF  THE  RECITATIONS. 
/.  30  develop  individuality. 

2.  So  encourage  originality. 

3.  So  cultivate  self=reliance  and  self= 
possession. 

4.  So    cultivate  sentiments    of  justice, 
kindness,  forlearance  and  courtesy. 

5.  $hat  the  development  and  the  growth 
of  the  pupils }  physically }  intellectually  and 
morally,  may  fie  carefully  nurtured^  and 
Iravely  prepare  them  for  life;s  service. 

IV.    Afms  to  be  Attained  in  Conducting  a  Recitation. 

1.  To  teach  "one  thing  at  a  time,  and  that  well." 

2.  To  fix  and  hold  the  attention. 

8.  To  develop  the  power  of  close  observation. 

4.  To  cultivate  exact,  concise,  and  ready  expres- 
sion. 

5.  To  increase  the  attainments  of  the  class. 

6.  To  determine  the  pupils'  habits  and  methods  of 
study,  and  to  correct  whatever  is  faulty  either  in 
manner  or  matter. 

7.  To  ascertain  the  extent  ot  preparation  on  (he 
part  of  the  pupil. 

8.  To  encourage  the  work.    This  is  important  to 
prevent  apostasy — "backsliding." 

9.  To  give  preliminary  drill  on  subsequent  lessons, 


ENDS  TO  BE  A  TTAINE9).  *41 

showing  what  is  to  be  done  and  how  it  is  to  be  done. 
This  needs  special  attention. 

10.  To  hear  reports  on  subjects  assigned  at  pre- 
vious recitations. 

11.  To  require  pupils  to  answer  in  full  and  com- 
plete propositions. 

12.  That  no  pupil  should  speak  till  recognized  by 
the  teacher — the  chairman  of  the  meeting. 

13.  Tte  pupil  should  rise  when  called  upon  to  re- 
cite. 

14.  The  teacher  is  not  expected  to  recite,  nor  repeat 
the  pupils'  answers. 

15.  That  system,   neatness  and  accuracy  should 
characterize  all  work. 

16.  That  criticism,  given  in  the  spirit  of  kindness, 
should  be  indulged  at  every  recitation. 

17.  That  the  recitation  should  cease  when  there  is 
any  confusion  in  the  room. 

18.  Aim  to  reach  general  principles. 

19.  Remember  that  in  primary  work  the  "  how w 
always  precedes  the  "  why." 

20.  Master  subjects  rather  than  pages. 

21.  Remember  that  mind-training  is  more  import- 
ant than  mere  knowledge. 

22.  Avoid  wandering ;  keep  the  object  of  the  les- 
son before  you. 

23.  Avoid  leaning  in  slavish  dependence  upon  the 
text-book. 

24.  Use  judgment  in  the  assignment  of  lessons. 

25.  Propound  questions  promiscuously. 

26.  State  the  question — then  call  upon  the  pupil. 


843  RECITA  TIONS. 


27.  When  the  pupil  is  called  upon  to  recite,  permit 
no  interruptions,  as  speaking  without  permission, 
holding  up  hands,  etc. 

28.  Cultivate  honesty  in  every  recitation. 

29.  Never  "show  off"  pet  classes  or  pet  pupils. 

30.  Do  not  talk  too  much  about  order.  ^~ 

31.  Cultivate  language  in  the  pupils  ;  let  every  ex- 
ercise bear  upon  the  correct  use  of  language.  ' 

32.  Close  recitation  promptly. 
83.  Dismiss  the  class  in  order. 

34.  Be  cheerful,  active  and  energetic. 

35.  Thoroughly  master  yonr  subjects.  O" 

36.  "  Make  haste  slowly." 

37.  Do  not  yourself  remove  difficulties,  but  teach 
pupils  to  overcome,  to  master  them  ;  in  all  instruction 
*' never  remove  a  difficulty  wnich  the  pupil  has  the 
power  to  remove." 

38.  Allow  no  questions  foreign  to  the  recitation  to 
be  asked. 

39.  Allow  no  hesitation  during  recitation. 

40.  Give  entire  time  and  attention  to  the  recitation. 

41.  Require  expertuess  in  mechanical  operations. 

42.  Comprehend  the  difference  between  memory 
of  words,  and  knowledge. 

48.  Comprehend  the  difference  between  "hearing 
a  recitation,"  and  teaching. 

44.  The  skilful  teacher  will  always  prepare  his 
class  for  any  difficulty  which  may  meet  them  in  the 
advance  lesson.  He  may  explain  the  difficulty  oral- 
ly ;  he  may  solve  an  example,  not  in  the  book,  which 
•hall  meet  the  difficulty;  he  may  give  the  class  a  pre- 


REQUISITIES.  348 


liminary  drill  on  the  rule,  or  on  a  series  of  more  dif- 
ficult examples  under  any  rule,  or  in  miscellaneous 
examples  under  a  number  of  rules.  Such  prepara- 
tion, judiciously  given,  is  calculated  to  keep  up  the 
ambition  o.f  all  the  class,  by  removing  all  excuses  for 
laziness  and  discouragement. 

45.  Remember  that  true  education  is  the  forming 
for  life  of  correct  habits  of  thinking,  feeling  and  doing. 

V.  REQUISITES  FOK  THE  RECITATION. 

7.  <S4>  live}  intelligent  teacher. 

2.  Recitation  seats. 

3.  <£4n  abundance  of  blackboard. 

4.  Apparatus, — suck   as  glcbes}  chartsf 
maps}  numerical  frame;  measures }  etc. 

5.  Reference  lochs. 

6.  <@att  lett. 

9.   Proper  ventilation. 

8.  Squal  temperature. 

VI.  PREPARATION  BY  THE  TEACHEK. 

1.  General  preparation^    always  special 
if  possible. 

2.  Should  have  a  knowledge  of  mental 
and  moral  philosophy. 

3.  Should  have  an  abstract  of  each  day't 
work. 


844  RECITATIONS. 


4.  Should  know  how  to  {l  use )}  looks, 
l)ut  not  abuse  them. 

Remarks    on    '•  How   to    Conduct  a    Recita- 
tion." 

Reproduction. 

No  permanent  results  can  be  attained  in  teaching 
without  thorough,  careful  and  repeated  reproduction 
of  lessons. 

After  a  lesson  has  been  given  and  recited  by  the 
pupils  in  the  subsequent  recitation,  they  should  be 
required  to  restate  what  they  learned  in  the  preceding 
lesson,  using  good  language  and  distinct  and  definite 
propositions.  No  questions  should  be  asked  by  the 
teacher — and  if  the  work  has  been  done  as  it  should  be 
in  the  preceding  exercise,  there  will  be  no  need  of  any. 

In  primary  classes,  require  oral  reproduction;  in 
intermediate  and  senior  classes,  written  reproduction. 
Reviews. 

In  the  review  the  teacher  asks  questions  of  the  pu. 
pils,  direct  and  general ;  pupils  are  required  to  con- 
struct tabulation  on  the  board,  and  recite  from  the 
tabulations.  It  is  well  to  let  the  pupils  ask  questions 
of  each  other — this  will  inspire  the  pupils  with  a  de- 
sire for  study  and  make  them  ready,  prompt  and  self- 
reliant. 

The  teacher  should  institute  weekly  reviews,  both 
oral  and  written. 

Rehearsal. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  reci- 
tation. To  so  conduct  it  that  pupils  may  pass  a 


THE  OBJECT  OF  EDUCATION.  345 

thorough  examination  requires -skill,  judgment  and 
experience.  The  teacher  is  not  expected  to  render 
assistance  in  this  division  of  the  recitation;  the  pu- 
pils must  do  the  work,  and  give  clear  proof  of  their 
comprehension  of  the  lesson.  If  they  cannot  do  it, 
the  teacher  is  in  fault,  and  not  the  pupils. 

During  this  part  of  the  recitation,  the  teacher 
should  not  take  the  time  "  to  recite;"  it  is  the  pupils' 
time.  That  is  a  very  poor  teacher  who  will  do  the 
work  that  should  be  done  by  the  pupil. 

Recapitulation. 

Before  the  class  is  excused,  let  them  give  the  lead- 
ing, salient  points  of  the  lesson— a  summary — a  di- 
gest of  the  whole. 

Give  Preliminary  Drill  upon  Subsequent 
Lessons. 

A  great  deal  of  time  is  lost  in  the  school,  because 
pupils  do  not  know  what  to  do  or  how  to  do  it.  In 
all  primary  classes  oral  instruction  should  preced6 
pure  recitation.  In  fact,  in  all  classes,  where  it  ia 
necessary,  oral  instruction  should  be  given. 

I  would  not  be  understood  to  say  that  the  teacher 
must  tell  the  child  all  he  is  to  learn;  he  should  use 
the  rational  oral  method, and  not  the  old,  antiquated 
text-book  method. 

Objects  of  the  Recitation. 

The  main  object  of  an  education  is  to  teach  a  child 
self-control— physical ]  intellectual  and  moral.  This 
can  be  done  only  through  a  harmonious  development 
of  all  his  powers. 


346  RECITA  TIONS. 


They  should  be  so  taught  in  school  that  they  may 
have  a  desire  to  pursue  other  studies;  able  to  acquire 
knowledge  by  observation,  investigation  and  study. 
The  knowledge  imparted  should  be  appliedr  as  far  as 
may  be,  to  practice. 

General  Remarks* 

In  recitations,  the  expression  of  the  thoughts  which 
the  pupil  has  acquired  by  study,  should  be  embodied 
in  his  own  language. 

If  the  lesson  contains  captions,  mathematical  defi- 
nitions, principles  or  tables,  or  fixed  rules,  they 
should  be  accurately  recited  in  the  words  of  the  au- 
thor. The  mind  should  be  the  depository  of  thoughts 
and  not  of  mere  words  and  signs. 

In  the  class-recitation  the  pupil  should  be  required 
to  stand  erect  while  .reciting.  This  will  give  him 
confidence  and  self-reliance. 

It  should  not  be  known  beforehand  what  order 
•will  be  pursued  in  conducting  the  recitation.  If 
called  on  consecutively,  some  will  be  inattentive;  if 
called  on  promiscuously,  the  idle  and  inattentive  will 
be  called  more  frequently. 

Every  teacher  must  see  to  it  that  each  pupil  is  so 
classified  as  to  be  required  to  perform  a  full  amount 
of  mental  labor.  "  Each  mind  must  be  taxed."  It 
is  the  wise  teacher  who  is  able  to  adapt  his  treatment 
and  instruction  to  the  wants  of  each  and  all. 

"Teachers  are  quite  apt  to  call  out  the  bright,  intel- 
ligent pupils  in  the  recitation;  but  let  us  remember 
that  mere  scholarship  does  not  make  the  man;  do 
not  slight  those  who  are  dull,  slow  to  understand. 


ffOXOR  THOSE  WHO  LABOR.  347 

Our  calculations  may  be  entirely  subverted;  in  ac- 
tive life  he  wins  who  is  more  industrious  and  labori- 
ous than  his  fellow-men. 

Honor  those  who  Labor. 

It  is  not  the  one  who  bears  away  the  highest  hon- 
ors in  the  colleges,  as  a  rule,  that  attains  to  the  high- 
est positions  in  life.  The  world  has  reversed  the 
decision,  and  awarded  the  merit  and  honor  to  him 
who  has  paved  his  way  to  distinction  and  usefulness 
by  toil  and  sweat  and  tears. 

Such  are  Nathaniel  Bowditch,  the  mathematician; 
Benjamin  Franklin,. the  philosopher;  George  Pea- 
body,  the  philanthropist ;  Abraham  Lincoln,  the 
statesman,  and  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  the  general. 

I  would  not  intimate  that  scholarly  ability  is  not 
desirable,  but  this  is  not  always  the  test.  Long  and 
merited  toil  is  the  price  of  merited  honor.  He  who 
has  gained  the  highest  marks  of  professional  life  has 
risen  step  by  step,  not  by  genius^  but  by  labor. 
Make  the  Recitation  Interesting* 

Another  practical  suggestion  in  this  connection  is: 
Btrive  to  make  the  recitation  attractive  and  interest- 
ing. This  requires  thought  and  professional  skill. 
The  teacher  should  carefully  study  each  lesson  be- 
fore meeting  the  class,  not  merely  to  enable  him  to 
understand  what  he  teaches,  but  to  be  able  to  so  con- 
duct the  recitation  that  he  will  awaken  and  keep  alive 
the  interest  of  his  pupils.  The  grand  test  of  the 
teacher's  ability,  and  the  secret  of  his  success  is  found 
in  his  power  to  inspire  his  pupils  with  earnestness 
and  enthusiasm.  To  wake  up  mind,  is  his  first  and 
most  important  duty.  A  true  teacher  is  alive  and  in 


848 


RECITATIONS. 


earnest;  his  heart  throbs  with  tenderness  and  emo- 
tion;  his  blood  flows  freely  through  his  veins,  and 
imparts  cheerfulness  and  vigor  to  his  whole  being. 
Enthusiasm  speaks  out  in  his  voice,  glows  in  his 
countenance  and  flashes  from  his  eye.  We  need  in 
active  service  more  of  these  live  teachers;  teachers 
that  can  bring  order  out  of  confusion,  light  out  of 
darkness,  and  awaken  to  activity  the  slumbering  pow- 
ers of  the  intellect. 

Our  Country  Needs  Teachers. 
The  country  needs  "  teachers  of  schools,"  not 
"keepers  of  schools."  The  country  needs  men  and 
•women  "  to  conduct  rational  recitations,"  not  to  hear 
classes.  The  country  needs  masters,  and  mastery  is 
attained  only  through  voluntary  and  persistent  labor. 
Michael  Angelo  says:  "  Trifles  make  perfection,  but 
perfection  is  no  trifle."  The  teacher  should  be 
•watchful,  faithful  and  prayerful.  Then,  and  not  un- 
til then,  will  he  attain  success  in  teaching. 
Recitation. 


Methods 
in        < 
Teaching. 

11.  jKoie, 
memori- 
ter. 
2.  Na- 
tional. 
(    I.  Rote, 
II.  Oral,           \    2.  Ra- 
III.  Socratic.     {  tlonal. 
IV.  Topic  or  Subject, 
V.  Discussion^ 
,  VI.  Lecture. 

UNTRAINED  TEACHERS.  34S 


The  above  methods  are  used  in  the  schools,  and 
many  other  ways  not  entitled  to  the  name  of  method. 

The  text  boqk  method  is  purely  English,  and  by 
some  it  is  a  "  much  abused  "  method. 

When  teachers  simply  require  the  pupils  to  com- 
mit a  lesson  to  memory  and  recite  it  mechanically, 
this  is  an  abuse  of  the  method.  The  subject  is  one 
of  unusual  interest  at  the  present  time,  for  the  reason 
that  so  much  is  said  and  written  for  and  against  the 
so-called  "oral  "  and  "  text-book  " methods,  respect- 
ively. While  on  the  one  band  the  text  book  method 
is  stigmatized  as  a  dead  mechanical  memorizing  of 
the  words  in  the  book  and  then  a  parrot-like  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  to  the  teacher,  who  sits  behind  the 
desk  and  looks  on  the  book  to  see  that  the  lesson  Is 
given  verbatim,  on  the  other  hand  the  oral  system 
is  acused  of  relieving  the  pupils  from  the  necessity 
of  study  ;  of  throwing  all  the  work  upon  the  teacher. 

Untrained  Teachers. 

No  doubt  there  are  legions  of  unskilful,  untrained 
or  negligent  teachers  in  the  country.  I  am  inclined 
to  think  that  they  far  outnumber  the  skilful  and 
pains-taking  ones — and  it  is  hardly  fair  to  judge  of 
the  methods,  when  they  misuse  the  position  and  the 
instruments  placed  in  their  hands  so  far  as  to  make 
the  text-book  a  procrustean  bed  and  the  recitation  a 
benumbing  process  to  the  faculties  of  the  child. 
The  mere  memorizing  of  the  context  is  no  index 
to  the  understanding  of  it.  A  school-mistress  once 
said  to  a  little  girl  i  "  How  is  it,  my  dear,  that  you  do 
not  understand  this  simple  thing?  "  "  I  do  not  know, 


850  RECITATIONS. 


indeed,"  she  answered  with  a  perplexed  look ;  "but 
I  sometimes  think  I  have  so  many  things  to  learn 
that  I  have  no  time  to  understand." 

It  is  not  best  to  condemn  a  method  that  has  been 
in  use  for  hundreds  of  years,  because  all  cannot 
attain  good  results.  But  systems  should  not  have 
their  merits  adjudged  by  their  results  in  the  hands  of 
bunglers  ;  they  should  be  compared  in  their  results 
as  achieved  at  the  hands  of  those  who  have  mastered 
the  methods.  A  system  is  not  responsible  for  the 
failures  of  those  who  do  not  follow  out  its  principles. 

Grand  results  have  been  attained  with  the  text, 
book  method,  by  adopting  the  rational  method  of 
recitation, — appealing  to  reason,  to  a  proper  under- 
standing of  the  context  before  memorizing.  The  latter 
is  preferred  by  all  rational  teachers. 
Oral  Method. 

The  method  is  purely  German,  and  like  the  text- 
book method  has  its  friends  and  foes.  In  some 
schools  tlie  teachers  lecture  before  the  children,  and 
require  them  to  reproduce  the  exact  language  of  the 
lecture.  In  this  case  it  is  as  much  a  rote  or  memor- 
iter  exercise  as  the  text-book  method. 

In  other  schools,  the  teachers  ask  suggestive  ques- 
tions,— they  excite  the  pupils'  curiosity,  awaken  the 
mind  and  easily  hold  the  attention.  The  pupils  do 
the  work,  and  infer  the  answers  through  their  powers 
of  perception.  This  is  real  education.  This  is  the 
rational  oral  method. 

The  advantage  of  class-recitation  may  be  found  in 
both  oral  and  text-book  methods,  chiefly,  I  think,  in 


ORAL  VS.  TEXT-BOOK  TEACHING.         351 

the  latter.  We  believe  in  a  combination  of  the  two 
methods.  We,  in  America,  can  neither  use  the  text- 
book method,  which  in  English,  nor  the  oral  method, 
•which  is  German.  We  need  to  Americanize  them, 
and  our  best  teachers,  already,  are  in  the  advance 
and  working  out  grand  results. 

Oral  and  Text-Book  Methods  Compared. 

The  American  method  is  the  philosophical  combi- 
nation of  both, — uniting  the  merits  and  rejecting  the 
faults.  Oral  methods  predominate  properly  in 
American  primary  schools  ;  text-book  methods  in 
secondary  schools  and  colleges  ;  and  we  return  again 
to  oral  methods,  or  lectures,  iu  the  professional 
schools.  The  true  place  for  oral  methods  is  in  pre- 
paratory work.  Oral  instruction  should  lead  to  and 
prepare  for  the  text-book. 

The  best  work  in  American  schools  is  iound  in  a 
judicious  combination  of  both  methods.  Oral  in- 
struction alone,  if  carried  through  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion, even  if  teachers  are  prepared  to  give  it,  is  not 
the  best  method.  It  should  lead  to  a  mastery  of 
other  thoughts  than  those  on  the  printed  page.  The 
most  effective  leaching  uses  both  the  oral  and  text- 
book methods.  If  used  properly,  oral  teaching  will 
teach  the  pupils  how  to  investigate.  Oral  instruc- 
tion, in  its  results,  is  of  the  highest  importance  to 
American  citizenship.  Young  children  have  few 
ideas,  for  they  have  heard  little,  read  little,  and  their 
observation  has  not  been  developed. 

Oral  instruction  takes  a  more  permanent  hold  of 
the  mind  than  memorizing  from  books.  It  affords 


352  RECITATIONS. 


the  learner  an  opportunity  to  ask  questions  as  tha 
lesson  proceeds,  and  gives  the  teacher  the  entire  con- 
trol of  the  youthful  minds  that  lie  fallow  before 
him.  It  opens  also  a  field  for  enthusiasm  in  teach- 
ing and  learning,  where  everything  with  some  teach- 
ers is  mere  drudgery.  It  would  give  life  where  there 
is  nothing  now  but  worn  and  worthless  machinery 
in  our  public  schools. 

Children  are  too  often  made  to  commit  to  memory 
names  and  dates  and  rules,  without  a  proper  under- 
standing of  them.  The  text-book  becomes  the  real 
instructor,  and  not  the  living  man  or  woman  who 
should  impart  instruction. 

We  would  not  discard  the  text-books  entirely, 
neither  would  we  exclude  them. 

The  proper  place  for  oral  instruction  is  in  the 
primary  department ;  and  in  other  classes  the  oral 
instruction  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to 
simply  prepare  the  pupils  for  study,  so  that  no  time 
may  be  wasted. 

Pupils  should  be  made  to  study  their  text-books  ; 
learn  short  lessons ;  be  asked  by  the  teachers  not 
only  the  questions  in  the  books,  but  others  that  will 
test  their  knowledge  and  awaken  their  interest. 

Some  pupils  lean,  readily  from  their  text-books, 
and  get  along  with  a  little  explanation.  Some  are 
more  dull  and  need  the  stimulus  of  recitation,  of 
questions  and  answers,  and  of  illustrations. 

The  Socratic  Method. 

By  skilful  questioning  the  pupil  is  led  to  discover 
the  truth,  and  trained  to  think.  Subjects  are  devel 


TOPICAL  TEACHING. 


oped  from  the  standpoint  of  the  learner.  The  teacher 
stimulates  and  directs,  but  never  crams.  Pupils  are 
encouraged  to  present  their  own  thoughts.  If  cor- 
rect, the  teacher  deepens  and  widens  these  views  by 
suggestive  illustrations.  If  incorrect,  the  absurdity 
is  shown  by  leading  the  pupils  to  discover  the  legiti- 
mate consequences.  Thus  the  burden  of  thought 
and  research  is  thrown  upon .  the  learner,  who,  at 
every  step,  feels  the  joy  of  discovery  and  victory, 
and  the  conscious  pleasure  of  assisting  the  teacher. 
Such  teaching  results  in  development,  growth  and 
education.  "  The  exercise  of  the  child's  own  powers, 
stimulated  and  directed,  but  not  superseded,  by  the 
teacher's  interference,  ends  both  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  and  in  the.  invigoration  of  the  powers  for 
future  acquisition." 

This  old,  old  method  is  slowly  but  irresistably 
tending  to  become  universal.  Mere  school  keepers, 
rote  teachers,  quacks,  shams  and  fossils  will  never 
adopt  this  plan  of  teaching  ;  but  as  teachers  become 
familiar  with  the  science  of  teaching,  they  will  neces- 
sarily use  the  Socratic  method  of  giving  instruction, 
It  is  the  natural  method. 

The  Topical  Method. 

In  this  method  the  pupils  are  trained  to  tell  conse- 
cutively their  own  thoughts. 

The  art  of  connected  discourse  is  essential ;  hence 
by  our  best  teachers  the  topical  method  is  made  the 
basis  of  the  recitation.  This  should  be  required  of 
every  class  in  school,  whenever  the  subject  will 
admit  of  it.  No  other  method  can  so  easily  secure 


854  RECITATIONS. 


the  results  to  be  accomplished.  Pointed,  searching 
questions  are  asked  whenever  necessary,  and  instruc- 
tion is  given  in  the  Socratic  method.  At  any  moment 
any  member  of  the  class  is  liable  to  be  called  on  to 
explain  a  difficulty,  to  answer  a  question,  or  to  con- 
tinue the  topic.  Thus  life,  vigor,  undivided  atten- 
tion, and  effective  individual  effort  are  secured  and 
maintained  throughout  the  recitation. 

Prompting,  in  all  its  forms,  is  inartistic  and  per- 
nicious. The  aim  is  to  train  the  pupils  to  habits  of 
independent  expression,  as  well  as  independent  thought. 
The  exclusive  use  of  the  topic  method  is  an  extreme 
to  be  studiously  avoided,  as  it  excludes  instruction 
and  fails  to  elicit  the  intense  interest  and  the  earnest 
effort  of  every  member  of  the  class.  It  should  have 
a  limited  use  in  the  primary  department,  more  ex- 
tended in  the  intermediate  and  senior  departments. 
In  the  primary  classes,  the  terms  may  be  developed 
individually,  and  written  on  the  board  ;  thus  forming 
a  complete  tabulation  and  classification. 

The  pupils  should  be  required  to  review  the  terms 
•written  on  the  board,  without  any  assistance  from 
the  teacher. 

In  intermediate  and  senior  classes,  the  pupils 
should  be  taught  to  tabulate  and  classify,  and  recite 
from  the  tabulation. 

The  Discussion  Method. 

Briefly  and  pointedly  pupils  present  their  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  their  respective  positions.  Crit- 
icisms are  urged  and  answered.  Every  point  ia 
Bharply  contested.  The  reasons  for  and  against  are 
carefully  weighed. 


TEA  CHING  BY  LECTURES.  S5i 

Educationally  the  discussion  method  stands  high. 
It  is  like  the  interest  excited  in  debate  ;  in  these 
mental  conflicts,  the  utmost  power  of  the  pupil  is  put 
forth. 

There  is  no  better  way  to  cultivate  independence, 
self-assertion,  liberality,  and  the  habit  of  treating  an 
opponent  courteously  and  fairly.  The  discussion 
method  supplements  the  Socratic  and  topic  methods. 
It  breaks  up  monotony,  dissipates  stupidness  and 
insipidity. 

From  the  primary  school  to  the  university  this 
method  may  be  used  to  incalculable  advantage;  but 
in  all  cases  it  must  be  kept  well  under  the  control 
and  direction  of  the  teacher. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  method  that  will  excite  greater 
interest  than  this  rational  method.  There  is  less  ex- 
amining, less  artificial  training  and  more  solid  devel- 
opment. The  discussion  method  is  pre-eminently 
the  method  to  make  thinking  men  and  thinking 

women. 

The  Lecture  Method. 

Lecturing  is  another  method  of  instruction  which 
has  its  uses  and  abuses.  A  lecture  by  the  teacher 
should  never  be  substituted  tor  a  recitation  by  the 
class.  Many  teachers  suppose  that  the  measure  of 
their  ability  as  instructors  is  the  power  they  have  to 
explain  and  illustrate  before  their  classes  ;  and  hence 
spend  the  mosi  of  the  time  assigned  to  recitation 
in  the  display  of  their  own  gifts  of  speech.  But  in 
the  recitation  room  the  good  teacher  has  but  little  to 
Bay.  His  ability  is  tested  more  by  his  silence  than  by 


856  RECITATIONS. 


his  loquacity;  by  his  power  to  arouse  and  direct  the 
activity  of  his  pupils,  more  than  by  his  own  actions. 
In  professional  schools  and  in  the  advanced  classes 
in  colleges,  the  time  for  recitation  is  largely  spent  in 
this  way.  The  lecturer  outlines  the  subject,  suggests 
the  fields  of  research,  indicates  the  line  of  thought, 
gives  much  information  and  stimulates  the  pupils  to 
effort.  It  the  student,  by  long  continued  effort  makes 
the  lecture  his  own,  great  will  be  the  results. 

But  nowhere  in  this  country  has  the  lecture  method 
alone  given  entire  satisfaction.  It  has  been  found 
necessary  to  institute  oral  and  written  examinations 
in  order  to  make  it  effective. 

The  conversational  lecture  gives  results.  The 
class  by  skilful  questions  are  led  into  rich  fields  of 
thought.  Topics  are  discussed  by  the  teacher  and 
the  pupils.  Questions  are  asked  that  produce  thought; 
experiments  are  performed  that  elicit  attention;  pu- 
pils are  led  to  draw  inferences  from  what  they  per- 
ceive. This  method  was  admirably  used  by  the  wise 
Socrates,  Plato  and  Aristotle.  From  these  great 
masters  modern  teachers  may  learn  important 
lessons. 

The  lecture  method  is  utterly  out  of  place  in  the 
primary  classes.  Wherever  it  has  been  used  it  proves 
a  failure. 

Whenever  a  teacher  gives  a  lecture  to  his  pupils, 
he  should  require  them  to  take  notes,  and  recite  after 
every  formal  lecture.  It  is  well  for  the  teacher  to 
•write  on  the  board  a  tabulated  classification,  and  re* 
quire  the  pupils  to  copy. 


LAWS  OF  QUESTIONING.  857 

General  Remarks. 

Whatever  method  the  teacher  may  follow,  OKK 
end  should  be  attained ;  the  best  possible  develop- 
ment of  true  manhood  and  womanhood.  The  inquiry 
may  rise,  what  is  the  end  of  study,  recitation 
and  instruction? 

Not  the  attainment  of  knowledge,  but  discipline — 
POWEB.  It  is  undoubtedly  a  fact  that  "  secular  educa- 
tion will  make  a  good  man  better,  but  a  bad  man 
worse." 

Education,  then,  is  not  the  storing  of  knowledge, 
but  the  development  of  power ;  and  the  law  of  de- 
velopment is  thorough  exercise. 

Any  system  of  education,  therefore,  which  weakens 
4the  motive,  or  removes  the  necessity  of  laboriout 
thinking  is  false  in  theory  and  ruinous  in  practice. 

There  is  only  one  way  to  acquire  knowledge,  and 
that  way  is  through  study — the  voluntary  and  eon- 
tinual  application  of  the  mind  to  a  subject 

Laws  of  Questioning. 

1.  Questions  should  be  clear  and  concise. 

2.  Questions  should  be  to  the  point. 

3  Questions  should  be  adapted  to  the  capacity. 

4.  Questions  should  be  logical. 

5.  Questions  should  not  be  ambiguous. 

6.  Avoid  questions  that  give  a  choice  between  two 
answers. 

7.  Avoid  direct  questions. 

8.  Avoid  set  questions. 

9.  Avoid  general  questions. 


868  RECITATIONS. 


10.  Avoid  questions  that    simply    exercise     the- 
faculty  of  memory. 

Object  of  Questions. 

1.  To  find  out  what  the  pupils  know. 

2.  To  ascertain  what  they  need  to  know. 

3.  To  awaken  curiosity. 

4.  To  arouse  the  mind  to  action. 

5.  To  illustrate ;  to  explain,— when  necessary. 

6.  To  impart  knowledge  not  found  in  the  text- 
book. 

7.  To  fix  knowledge  in  the  mind. 

8.  To  secure  thoroughness. 

Cautions  to  be  Observed,  in  Questioning. 

1.  Ask  questions  only  once. 

2.  Vary  the  questions. 

3.  Begin  the  exercise  with  an  easy  question. 

4.  Let  your  questions  be  connected. 

5.  When  a  question  is  asked,  do  not  suggest  the 
first  words  of  the  answer. 

6.  Enunciate  every  question  with  distinctness. 

7.  Anticipate  answers ;    arrange  suggestive  ques- 
tions. 

8.  Never  neglect  or  ridicule  an  answer. 

9i  "  Never  tell  a  child  what  you  could  make  that 
child  tell  you." 

10.  Question  -the  lesson    into  the   minds  of   the 
pupils,  and  question  it  out  again. 

11.  Lead  the  pupil  by  a  pleasant  question  to  dis- 
cover his  own  mistake,  instead  of  directly  charging 
bim  with  it 


FIJIST  PRINCIPLES.  359 

Maxims,  or  First  Principles. 

I.  "  The  idea  should  go  before  the  word  which 
expresses  it — or,  in  other  words,  a  dear  and  dis- 
tinct conception  of  an  object  should  be  impressed 
upon  the  mind,  before  the  name  or  term  which 
expresses  it  be  committed  to  memory" 

II.  "  In  the  process  of  instruction,  nothing  (if 
possible]  should  be  assigned  to  the  young  merely 
as  a  task." 

III.  "  Everything  that  is  cheerful  and  exhilar- 
ating to  the  young  should  be  associated  with  the 
business  of  edncation" 

IV.  "  In  the  practice  of  teaching,  the  principle 
of  emulation  should  be  discarded." 

V.  "  Corporal  punishment  should  be  seldom  or 
never  inflicted — and  when  it  is  determined  upon 
as  the  last  resort,  it  should  be  inflicted  with  calm- 
ness and  affection." 

VI.  "  Children  should  not  be  long  confined  in 
school — and  never  any  longer  than  they  are  actu- 
ally employed  in  it." 

VII.  "  Young  people  should  always  be  treated 
as  rational  creatures,  and  their  opinion  occasion- 
ally solicited  as  to  certain  points  and  scholastic 
arrangements" 

VIII.  "  Reproof  should  always   be  tendered 
with  the  utmost  confidence  and  mildness." 


860  RECITATIONS. 


IX.  "  One  great  object  of  education  shoald  bt 
to  fix  the  attention  on  the  subjects  we  wish  to  ex- 
plain and  elucidate" 

Remarks. 

A  principle  of  teaching  is  a  law  based  upon  the 
condition  of  the  minds  of  those  to  be  taught. 

Very  meagre  will  be  the  results  of  those  teachers 
who  instruct  regardless  of  principles.  There  may 
be  apparent  advancement,  but  there  will  be  no  real 
progress. 

If  the  first  principle  were  uniformly  introduced 
into  education  it  would  overturn  almost  every  system 
of  instruction  which  has  hitherto  prevailed.  We  may 
ask  in  the  name  of  all  that  is  wise,  what  is  gained  if 
we  stock  and  overburden  the  memories  of  children 
with  a  medley  of  words  to  which  no  correct  ideas 
are  attached?  A  child  may  repeat  hundreds  of  verses 
and  yet  be  entirely  ignorant  of  the  meaning  of 
almost  every  proposition.  In  the  original  formation 
of  language,  the  objects  of  nature  must  first  have 
been  observed  and  known,  before  words  or  signs 
were  fixed  upon  to  distinguish  them  ;  the  children 
should  be  made  to  feel  a  desire  for  terms  to  express 
their  ideas  ;  and,  in  this  case,  the  ideas  and  the 
words  which  express  them  will  afterwards  be  insep- 
arably connected. 

Pains  should  be  taken  to  carry  out  the  intent  of 
the  second  principle.  The  teacher  cannot  be  too 
careful  not  to  disgust  at  the  first  process  of  learning. 
Frequently  revengeful  feelings  are  excited  by  re- 


MAKE  STUDY  PLEASANT.  361 

quiring  children  to  remain  after  school  hours,  and 
commit  lines  of  poetry  to  memory,  or  perform  some 
menial  duty. 

Teachers  are  sometimes  at  fault  for  unlearned  les- 
sons on  the  part  of  pupils,  because  they  have  not 
told  the  children  what  to  do  or  how  to  do  it  If  the 
young  understand  the  nature  and  objects  of  their 
work,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  should  be  prose- 
cuted, they  will  find  a  pleasure  in  endeavoring  to 
surmount  every  apparent  difficulty.  The  work  should 
be  represented  both  as  a  duty  and  a  pleasure. 

It  will  give  pleasure  both  to  teacher  and  pupils  to 
practise  the  import  of  the  third  principle. 

A  smile  from  the  teacher  lightens  the  labor  of  the 
school,  and  lessens  the  burdens  of  the  day. 

School-rooms  should  be  spacious,  light  and  airy, — 
well  ventilated,  comfortably  heated  during  winter 
and  erected  in  delightful  and  commanding  situations. 
The  walls  should  be  adorned  with  pictures,  mottoes, 
vines  and  ornaments. 

The  school-room  should  be  made  as  homelike  as 
possible,  as  inviting  as  public  halls.  Teachers  should 
frequently  exhibit  amusing  and  instructive  exper- 
iments, and  ask  the  children  to  assist  them.  The 
children  should  be  gratified  occasionally  with  excur- 
sions into  interesting  parfs  of  the  country,  to  view 
the  works  of  nature  and  thus  increase  their  love  of 
the  beautiful.  Everything  should  be  so  conducted 
that  all  their  scholastic  exercises  may  be  connected 
with  delightful  associations. 

In  the  practice  of  the  fourth  principle,  we  believe 


RECITATIONS. 


that  the  principle  of  emulation  should  be  discarded. 
Many  teachers  have  asserted  that  they  could  not  con- 
duct education  without  the  aid  of  this  principle.  We 
believe  that  commendation  for  improvement  needs 
to  be  practised  much  more  frequently  than  reproof 
for  deficiency. 

It  is  better  to  cultivate  a  love  of  knowledge  for  its 
own  sake,  that  is  for  the  pleasure  it  imparts  and  also 
for  the  sake  of  the  increased  good  it  will  enable  us 
to  do  for  ourselves  and  for  our  fellow-beings. 

By  appeals  to  parental  authority  and  influence ;  by 
efforts  to  form  correct  public  sentiment  in  schools, 

that  it  shall  be  unpopular  to  do  wrong  ;  by  culti- 
vating iii  the  pupils  a  sense  of  obligation  to  God,  of 
his  constant  inspection,  and  of  his  interest  in  all  their 
concerns,  the  children  may  be  stimulated  to  do  right. 

We  believe  that  to  encourage  pupils  to  do  right  is 
the  safest  way  ;  not  always  the  easiest,  but  the  best. 

In  an  intellectual  point  of  view  emulation  may  be 
satisfactory  to  the  few  that  excel ;  satisfactory  to 
parents  and  guardians,  who  are  led  to  form  false 
estimates  of  their  progress  and  acquirements  by  the 
places  they  occupy  in  their  respective  classes  ;  but 
it  almost  uniformly  produces  an  injurious  effect  on 
the  moral  temperament  of  the  young  and  on  their 
companions  whom  they  excel. 

One  grand  end  of  instruction,  which  has  been  too 
much  overlooked,  is  to  cultivate  and  regulate  the 
moral  powers, — to  produce  love,  affection,  concord, 
humility,  self-denial  and  other  moral  graces.  But 
the  principle  of  emulation  has  a  tendency  to  produce 


CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT.  888 

jealousy,  envy,  hatred  and  other  malignant  passions. 
Besides  it  is  only  a  very  few  in  every  class  that  can 
be  stimulated  to  exertion  by  this  principle,  and  these 
few  are  generally  of  such  a  temperament  as  to  require 
their  ambitious  disposition  to  be  restrained,  rather 
than  excited.  A  material  prize  is  the  least  effectual 
mode  of  accomplishing  the  desired  object;  it  is  found- 
ed on  injustice,  inasmuch  as  it  heaps  honors  and  em- 
oluments on  those  to  whom  nature  has  already  been 
most  bountiful. 

In  the  curiosity  of  children,  there  is  sufficient  and 
natural  stimulant  of  the  appetite  for  knowledge,  and 
we  live  in  a  world  abounding  in  the  means  of  useful 
and  pleasurable  gratifications. 

All  that  is  required  of  teachers  is  to  aid  the  facul- 
ties with  affection  and  judgment.  A  certificate  of 
diligence  and  good  conduct  seems  to  be  all  that  is 
necessary  to  distinguish  from  the  vicious,  the  idle, 
the  slothful,  those  who  have  employed  their  lime  and 
talents  in  a  proper  manner. 

In  the  fifth  principle,  which  says  :  "  Corporal  pun- 
ishment should  be  seldom  or  never  inflicted,"  etc.,  is 
one  of  the  unsolved  problems  of  the  day.  Whether 
we  have  a  healthier  form  of  discipline  in  our  Amer- 
ican families  and  schools,  can  only  be  answered  cor- 
rectly by  the  wise  fathers  and  mothers  who  have 
passed  their  four  score  years.  We  can  but  believe 
that  corporal  punishment,  as  it  is  generally  adminis- 
tered, is  something  revolting  and  degrading  in  ita 
character,  and  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  it  gener- 
ally indicates  that  there  has  been  a  want  of  proper 


864  RECITATIONS. 


training  in  the  earlier  stages  of  life.  It  is  vain  to 
imagine  that  children  can  be  whipped  into  either 
learning  or  religion  ;  and  if  an  enlightened  and 
judicious  mode  of  tuition  were  universally  adopted 
there  would  seldom  be  any  necessity  for  resorting  to 
such  a  stimulus.  But  in  the  modes  of  teaching  which 
now  generally  prevail,  corporal  punishment  is  almost 
inevitable. 

Corporal  punishment,  rudeness,  ridicule  and  re- 
proach are  altogether  incompatible  with  a  system  of 
moral  and  intellectual  instruction  which  is  calculated 
to  allure  the  minds  of  the  young. 

Corporal  punishment  has  generally  a  hardening 
effect  on  the  minds  both  of  young  and  old. 

A  blacksmith  brought  up  his  son,  to  whom  he  was 
very  severe,  to  his  own  trade.  The  urchin  was 
nevertheless  an  audacious  dog.  One  day  the  old 
vulcan  was  attempting  to  harden  a  cold  chisel  which 
be  had  made  of  foreign  steel,  but  could  not  succeed. 
"  Horse-whip  it,  father,"  exclaimed  the  youth,  "  if 
that  will  not  harden  it,  nothing  will." 

Little  need  be  said  on  the  sixth  principle  ;  but  all 
will  agree  that  a  school  ought  never  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses of  a  prison.  If  the  primary  classes  are  incapa- 
ble of  preparing  the  lessons  themselves,  they  should 
be  provided  with  slates  and  pencils  and  taught  how 
to  draw,  to  write  and  make  figures.  In  mild  weather 
they  should  have  frequent  recesses,  and  be  called  in 
when  their  lessons  are  to  be  explained. 

The  seventh  principle,  if  fully  practised,  will  aid 
materially  in  school  government.  The  reasons  for 


LAWS  OF  TEACHING. 


the  treatment  they  receive,  and  for  the  exercises  pre- 
scribed, in  so  far  as  they  are  able  to  appreciate  them, 
should  be  stated  occasionally,  and  explained  and 
illustrated. 

The  eighth  principle  is  one  of  the  most  important 
ones.  Plato  said,  "  a  teacher  should  never  punish  in 
anger."  When  reproofs  are  uttered  in  passion,  and 
with  looks  of  fury,  they  seldom  or  never  produce 
any  good  effect,  and  not  unfrequently  excite  a  spirit 
of  revenge  against  the  reprover. 

The  ninth  and  last  principle  should  be  put  in 
practice  by  teachers.  But  few  seem  to  do  it. 

The  habit  of  attending  to  what  one  reads  and  what 
one  hears  is  a  most  important  habit. 

In  order  to  fix  the  attention,  we  must  "continually 
think  about  it,"  study  the  subject,  and  get.  the  powers 
ander  control.  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  investigate, 
to  study,  to  think,  to  notice  every  object  within  the 
reach  of  their  vision,  and  to  give  an  account  of  what 
they  have  seen  or  heard. 

All  of  these  circumstances  have  a  tendency  to 
induce  a  habit  of  attention,  without  which  there  can 
he  no  solid  improvement  in  any  department  of 
instruction.  The  teacher  should  not  proceed  with 
the  exercises  of  tbe  school  without  the  undivided 
attention  of  every  pupil.  It  is  the  imperative  duty 
of  the  pupils  to  attend,  provided  the  teacher  is 
capable  of  instructing  them. 

Laws  of  Teaching. 

1.  Know  thoroughly  and  familiarly  whatever  you 
attempt  to  teach. 


366  RECITATIONS. 


2.  Gain  and  keep  the  attention  of  your  pupils,  and 
•excite  their  interest  in  the  subject. 

3.  Use  language  which  your  pupils  fully  under- 
stand, and  clearly  explain  every  new  word  requireu. 

4.  Begin  with  what  is  already  known,  and  proceed 
to  the  unknown  by  easy  and  natural  steps. 

5.  Excite  the  self-activity  of  the  pupils,  and  lead 
them  to  discover  the  truth  for  themselves. 

6.  Require  pupils  to  re-state  fully  and  correctly  in 
their  own  language,  and  with  their  own  illustrations, 
the  truth  taught  them. 

7.  Review,  review,  review, — carefully,  thoroughly 
and  repeatedly. 

NOTE. — These  laws  underlie  and  control  all  suc- 
cessful teaching.  Nothing  need  be  added  to  them ; 
nothing  can  be  safely  taken  away. 

Principles  of  Teaching. 

1.  "  Teach  objects  before  names." 

2.  "  Teach  ideas  before  words." 

3.  "  Teach  thoughts  before  sentences." 

4.  "  Knowledge  before  definitions." 

5.  "  Proceed  from  the  known  to  the  unknown." 

6.  "  Proceed  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract." 

7.  "  Proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex." 

8.  "  Proceed  from  the  particular  to  the  general." 

9.  "Proceed  from  rudiments  to  principles." 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. 

1.  Show  the  necessity  of  a  subject  before  you  begin 
to  teach  it. 

2.  Require  one  subject  to  be  understood,  before 
taking  up  another. 


SUGGESTIONS.  367 


3.  Require  everything  that  is  taught,  to  be  repro- 
duced by  the  pupils. 

4.  Always  take  up  subjects  in  their  logical  order. 

5.  That  which  is  attempted  should  be  thoroughly 
mastered. 

6.  Remember  that  all  the  powers  are  developed  by 
being  judiciously  and  vigorously  exercised. 

7.  Remember  that  knowledge  is  of  little  value 
unless  it  can  be  utilized. 

8.  Remember  that  a  lesson  is  not  given  untjl  it  has 
been  received. 

Suggestions  to  Young  Teachers. 

1.  Make  weekly  or  bi-weekly  inspections  of  all 
books  held  by  the  pupils,  holding  each  responsible 
for  the  right  use  of  the  same.    This  will  prevent 
much  mutilation  and  destruction  of  books. 

2.  In  the  class  room,  teachers  should  not  confine 
the  attention  of  the  pupils  exclusively  to  what  is 
found  in  the  books.    "  Books  are  but  helps,"  or  in- 
struments;  and  while  that  which  is  contained  in 
them  should  be  judiciously  used  and  thoroughly 
understood,  yet,  so  far  as  time  will  permit,  the  teacher 
can,  to  advantage,  introduce  such  matters  as  are  not 
only  valuable  in  themselves,  but  such  as  will  tend  to 
impress  the  subject  of  the  lesson  more  firmly  upon 
the  mind. 

3.  Be  judicious  and  sparing  in  awarding  credit  or 
discredit  marks ;  to  be  lavish,  would  render  them 
cheap  and  comparatively  valueless. 

4.  Before  reproving  delinquents  in  recitation,  firef. 
inquire  whether  or  not  they  have  studied,  and,  if  so 


RECITATIONS. 


what  effort  has  been  made.  Some  pupils  may  devote 
touch  time  and  labor  to  the  acquirement  of  their 
lessons,  and  yet  in  the  class-room  be  weak  in  recita- 
tion ;  and  to  denounce .  such  would  tend  to  dis- 
courage rather  than  stimulate. 

5.  During  a  recitation,  the  attention  of  all  should 
be  engaged  upon  the  lesson  or  subject  under  con- 
sideration. 

6.  When  a  pupil  applies  for  assistance  in  any 
question,  do  not  accomplish  the  whole   yourself, 
neither  send  him  away  entirely  unaided;  but  after 
he  has  studied  the  subject  faithfully,  present  to  him 
one  or  two  of  the  leading  principles  involved,  and 
then  leave  him  to  develop  the  matter  himself.      Too 
much  aid  is  sometimes  worse  than  too  little. 

7.  Teachers  should,  before  entering  on  their  duties 
for  the  day,  be  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  sub- 
ject of  each  lesson.      A  teacher,  while  conducting  a 
recitation,  should  never  be  obliged  to  refer  to  the  book 
or  map  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  or 
not  the  pupil  is  correct  in  his  answer.     Besides  dis- 
playing a  weakness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  there 
arises  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the  query— why 
should  I  study  what  my  teacher  does  not  know? 

The  teacher  should  be  first  well  acquainted  with 
the  true  answer  to  every  question,  and  the  correct 
pronunciation  of  eyery  word  in  the  several  lessons. 
It  will  be  seen  that  many  advantages  attend  this  plan; 
the  chief  ot  which  are — much  time  is  saved,  the 
teacher  instructs  with  more  facility  and  success,  and 
the  pupil,  observing  the  familiarity  of  the  teacher 


SUGGESTIONS.  W9 

with  the  several  subjects,  leels  for  him  a  greater  re- 
spect 

8.  In  hearing  a  lesson  give  the  pupil  time  to  answer 
when  it  appears  he  has  a  correct  idea,  and  merely 
hesitates  to  find  words  to  express-himself ;  but  when 
it  is  evident  that  he  is  ignorant  of  the  answer,  wait- 
ing is  bnt  a  loss  of  time. 

9.  Be  sure  the  pupils  have  gained  IDEAS.     Words, 
without  ideas,  clog  the  mind. 

10.  A  teacher  taking  charge  of  a  new  class,  should 
at  first  advance  it  beyond  the  farthest  point  it  bad 
previously  attained  in  each   study.      In   case   the 
teacher  finds  the  new  class  deficient  in  what  has  been 
passed  over,  he  should  not  turn  back  until  about  two 
weeks  have  elapsed,  when  all  necessary  reviews  may 
be  made. "    When  a  class  passes  under  the  control  of 
another   teacher,  a   sudden    retrograde    movement 
would  produce  discontent  in  the  class.    At  the  same 
time,  the  teacher  should  avoid  allusion  tending  to 
disparage  the  course  of  his  predecessor  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  class. 

11.  The  hearing  of  lessons  should  not  occupy  more 
than  one  hour  and  a  half  daily ;  the  remainder  of  the 
day  being  devoted  to  ACTUAL  TEACHING,  when  the 
lessons  for  the  following  day  may  be  explained  by 
the  teacher.    In  Grammar    Schools,  answering  hi 
CONCERT  should  be  abolished. 

12.  Whenever  practicable,  teach  by  means  of  ob- 
jects, or  through  the  medium  of  the  eye ;  in  Qeo- 
giaphy,  use  globes  and  maps;  in  Astronomy,  use 
orrery,  globes  and  diagrams  ;  in  Spelling,  frequently 


370  REOITA  TIONS. 


require  the  pupils  to  write  the  words  or  sentences 
given. 

13.  If  you  would  have  no  drones  in  your  school, 
talk  at  each  recitation  |o  the  dullest  in  your  class, 
and  use  all  your  ingenuity  in  endeavoring  to  make 
him  comprehend.    The  others,  then,  will  be  sure  to 
understand. 

14.  Make  each  exercise  as  attractive  as  possible. 
Think  out  your  methods  beforehand,  and  illustrate 
freely. 

15.  Cultivate  self-control  ;  never  be  led  into  con- 
fusion, and  above  all  be  in  earnest. 

16.  Be  cheerful  and  smile  often.    A  teacher  with 
a  long  face  casts  a  gloom  over  everything,  and  event- 
ually chills  young,  minds  and  closes  young  hearts. 

17.  Use  simple  language  when  you  explain  lessons. 
Long  words  are  thrown  away  in  the  school-room. 

13.  Thoroughly  test  each  pupil  on  the  lesson,  and 
do  not  be  afraid  of  repetition.  Review  every  day, 
or  much  will  be  lost. 

19.  Do  not  try  to  teach  too  much  ;  better  teach  a 
little  and  teach  it  well. 

20.  Endeavor  to  make  your  pupils  understand  the 
meaning  of  what  they  study.     Probe  the  matter  to 
the  bottom,  and  get  at  the  real  knowledge  of  your 
scholars. 

21.  Cultivate  the  understanding,  and  do  not  appeal 
directly  to  the  memory. 

22.  Lay  the  foundation  of  knowledge  firmly  and 
well. 

28.  Impart  right  principles  and  lead  your  pupils 


PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING.  371 

to  a  higher  level,  to  a  nobler  range  of  thought. 
Endeavor  to  accomplish  all  that  skill,  intelligence 
*nd  love  can  suggest. 

What  now  you  do,  you  know  not, 

But  shall  hereafter  know, 
When  the  seed  which  you  are  sowing, 

To  a  whitened  field  shall  grow. 

'Tis  a  rich  young  soil  you're  tilling. 

Then  scatter  the  good  seeds  well ; 
Of  the  wealth  of  the  golden  harvest 

Eternity  will  tell. 

24.  Teach  your  pupils  to  fight  manfully  in  the 
•warfare  of  good  against  evil,  truth  against  error  ;  and 
above  all,  let  the  eternal  principles  of  right  and 
wrong  govern  your  own  life,  and  form  a  part  of 
your  own  character.  If  you  do  this,  you  will  "  sow 
beside  all  waters,  and  eventually  bring  home  your 
sheaves  rejoicing." 

Principles  ol  Teaching. 

1.  Teach  and  train  the  eye  to  perceive  correctly. 

2.  Teach  and  train  the  ear  to  understand  correctly. 
8.  Teach  and  train  the  hand  to  execute  correctly. 

4.  Teach  and  train  the  tongue  to  speak  correctly. 

5.  Teach  and  train  the  pupils  to  reproduce  cor- 
rectly. 

8.  "  Begin  at  the  beginning." 
7.  "  Follow  a  natural  order." 
8    "  Classify  knowledge. " 
*.  "Master  principles." 


DISCIPLINARY  EXERCISES. 


INTRODUCTION. 

An  experience  of  several  years  enables  the  author 
to  assert  that  disciplinary  and  calisthenic  exercises 
are  -best  for  maintaining  the  discipline  of  schools ; 
they  invigorate  the  body,  improve  the  carriage  and 
impart  habits  of  punctuality,  quickness,  courtesy 
and  obedience. 

The  pupils  almost  invariably  delight  in  them  ;  the 
exercises  of  the  drill  give  them  physical  vigor  and 
alacrity  ;  they  learn  insensibly  and  in  a  pleasurable 
way  the  need  of  instant  and  cheerful  obedience.  In 
this  chapter  we  intend  to  explain  the  manner  of  con- 
ducting such  exercises. 

We  shall  use  the  plainest  and  simplest  terms,  with 
less  reference  to  the  taste  of  the  critic  than  to  the 
convenience  and  profit  of  the  pupil. 

A  large  proportion  of  our  teachers  are  young  and 
inexperienced.  They  are  earnest  and  energetic  ; 
they  are  desirous  of  learning  how  to  accomplish  their 
duties  fully  and  pleasantly  ;  and  they  are  thankful 
for  any  instruction  in  means  and  method.  These 
exercises  are  offered  as  suitable  to  be  joined  to  labor, 
or  thrown  around  it  in  disgvise.  It  is  hoped  that  the 


DISCIPLINARY  COMMANDS.  878 

instruction  here  given  will  be  sufficiently  plain  to 
enable  every  teacher  to  put  it  into  practice. 

Much  depends  upon  presenting  the  subject  prop- 
erly to  the  pupils.  It  will  not  do  to  force  the  mattf 
upon  them,  nor  even  let  it  seem  too  much  youi  own 
plan.  Start  it  quietly,  and  tell  them  the  use  of  the 
exercise,  and  they  will  urge  you  to  drill  them.  The 
exercise  is  one  in  which  all  may  take  part,  and  they 
will  soon  be  convinced  of  the  merits  of  the  plan. 

In  preparation  for  your  first,  and  for  every  drill,  you 
must  have  thoroughly  studied  and  practised  every 
movement  which  you  are  to  teach. 

In  demeanor  be  energetic,  prompt  and  decided ; 
use  no  waste  words,  and  err,  if  at  all,  on  the  side  of 
severity,  rather  than  of  familiarity. 

Directions. 

Disciplinary  Commands. 
A.  THI  WORD  OF  CAUTION.    B  THK  WORD  or  EXECUTION. 

fl.  Side  by  side, 

2.  Face  Front, 

3.  Not  too  close, 

4.  Form  on  the  right, 

5.  Head  to  the  right, 

6.  Arms  by  the  side, 

7.  Fingers  extended, 
.  7.  No  talking  &c. 

f  1.  Face  to  the  Front, 

!2.  Chin  close  to  neck 
1 8SKSS!* 

5  Eyes  to  the  Front, 
6.  Body  erect. 


I.  Pupils Form  the  Line  ! 


374  DISCIPLINARY  EXERCISES. 

III.  Head  (  Eyes  ........  Right.—  Front. 

Movement.  (  Eyes  ........  Left.  —  Front. 


TV 


!1.  Mark  time  .  .  .  .March, 
2.  Forward  .......  March, 
3.  File  right  .....  March, 
4.  File  left  ........  March. 

VI.  Halt. 

CAUTIONS  1.  Require  perfect  silence, 

2.  Do  not  talk  too  much, 

3.  After  giving  a  command,  wait  until 

it  is  executed. 

4.  Explain  each  new  position,   before 

execution. 

5.  Take  up  one  movement  at  a  time, 

6.  Keep  exact  step, 

7.  Keep  steady  time, 

8.  Persevere. 

Pupils,  form  the  Line  ! 

The  command,  "  Pupils,  form  the  Line  !"  I  will 
explain  :  It  means,  make  a  line,  side  by  side,  facing 
one  way  ;  not  too  close  to  each  other;  without 
crowding  ;  as  you  come  up,  do  not  crowd  in  at  the 
centre  of  the  line,  but  seek  a  place  at  the  left  ;  (allow 
no  talking,  laughing,  or  even  smiling.)  Let  your 
arms  hang  naturally  at  your  sides,  the  fingers  ex- 
tended, palms  of  the  hands  turned  in  and  the  elbows 
touching  each  other  lightly.  Turn  your  head  to  the 


WORDS  OF  COMMAND.  376 

right,  (not  your  shoulders,)  and  look  along  the  line 
to  see  if  you  are  not  too  far  forward  or  behind.  If 
forward,  fall  back  ;  if  behind,  come  forward. 

The  teacher  should  take  pains  with  each  one  to 
see  that  he  now  obeys  the  directions  in  every  ono 
of  these  particulars.  Give  praise  and  encourage- 
ment when  deserved. 

Pupils,  Attention/ 

At  this  command,  you  will  think  over  every  par- 
ticular :  the  position  of  the  head,  eyes,  chest,  arms 
and  feet.  You  will  remain  in  a  perfect  and  quiet 
position  until  another  command  is  given  to  you— 
"  Dismissed  !  " 

Eyes,  Right! 

The  word  of  caution  is,  "  eyes."  You  are  warned 
by  that  word  that  something  is  to  be  done  with  eyes. 
You  are  to  do  nothing  until  you  have  the  word  of 
execution,  which  is,  "  Right."  As  soon  as  you  hear 
that,  you  are  to  remain  in  this  position  until  you 
hear  the  command,  "  Front  1 "  when  you  are  to  re- 
sume the  first  position,  Now,  we  will  give  you  a 
trial—"  Eyes— Right  I "  "  Eyes— Left  I " 

Let  there  be  a  careful  drill  and  a  review  of  all  the 
commands.  Never  forget  that  "Front''  must  fol- 
low each  command. 

Eight,  Face  ! 

This  movement  is  performed  by  throwing  the  weight 
of  the  body  on  the  left  foot,  making  the  heel  of  that 
foot  the  pivot  on  which  the  body  turns,  the  right  foot 
being  raised  very  slightly  and  brought  around  while 
turning  to  the  right  position.  In  turning,  be  careful 


876  DISCIPLINAR  Y  EXER  G1SE8. 

not  to  sway  the  body  or  bend  the  knees.    Do  not 
•move  with  a  jerk. 

About,  Face! 

At  the  word  "about,"  the  position  of  the  "rest" 
is  assumed  with  the  feet ;  at  the  word  "  face,"  turn 
on  the  left  heel  completely  around,  bringing  the 
right  foot  to  the  side  of  the  left;  to  make  the  move- 
ment tell,  so  that  the  executions  of  the  order  may  be 
simultaneous,  it  will  be  well  to  require  a  stamp  of 
the  right  foot  as  it  is  brought  back,  at  the  word 
"about."  Do  not  go  on  to  order  "face"  until 
"  about "  is  well  learned .  This  is  a  difficult  motion. 
Be  patient ;  spend  mnch  time  on  it. 

The  "  left,  face  ! "  is  done  in  the  same  way,  except 
that  the  head  is  turned  to  the  left. 

It  would  be  well  to  arrange  the  pupils  according 
to  height,  as  this  will  add  to  their  appearance.  The 
"facings"  are  rather  difficult,  yet  very  important 

movements. 

Marching  Movement. 

Mark  Time,  March  ! 

At  the  word  of  caution,   the  weight  of  the  body 

rests  upon  the  right  foot ;  the  left  foot  is  held  ready 

to  take  a  step.    At  the  word  "March,"  the  left  foot 

is  thrown   forward,  as  if  to  advance,  and    brought 

*  back  to  place  :  the  right  foot  follows  in  the  same  way. 

There  is  no  advancing,  and  care  must  be  taken  to 

bring  the  feet  back  into  their  tracks,  or  the  Hue  will 

be  broken. 

Forward,  March! 

While    marking  time,   give    "forward,    march,' 


WORDS  OF  COMMAND.  377 

taking  care  to  pronounce  the  word  "  march"  as  the 
right  foot  strikes  the  floor. 

Marching,  either  from  marking  time  or  from  a  halt, 
must  be  by  "  the  left  foot  first." 

Halt! 

The  command,  "  halt,"  stops  them.  The  word 
"halt"  must  always  be  given  just  as  either  foot 
strikes  the  ground. 

Best! 

"Rest"  is  performed  by  bringing  the  hands  to- 
gether, the  left  crossed  over  the  right ;  arms  at  full 
length ;  left  foot  brought  at  right  angles  with  the  line; 
right  foot  thrown  back,  the  bottom  three  inches  in 
the  rear  of  the  heel  of  the  left  foot  and  parallel  with 
the  line  ;  weight  of  the  body  on  the  right  foot. 

If  any  one  find  himself  getting  behind,  he  must 
take  longer  steps.  "  Lengthen  the  pace  but  never 
lose  the  time."  While  marching  by  file,  if  you  wish 
to  turn  to  the  right  or  left,  command,  "  File — Right !" 
or  "File— Left!" 

This  order  is  obeyed  by  the  file-leader,  and  the 
rest  follow  him.  The  pupils  must  remember  to 
preserve  while  marching  the  exact  fronting  distance, 
sixteen  inches. 

In  marching  watch  every  movement  and  see  that 
the  pupils  are  in  perfect  order.  When  the  command 
"  Halt! "  is  given,  require  the  pupils  to  stop  instantly. 

Proper  Space. 

In  marching,  let  there  be  a  space  of  about  sixteen 
Inches  between  the  pupils.  Insist  that  the  body  shall 


878  DISCIPLINARY  EXERCISES. 

not  be  allowed  to  sway  about  while  marking  time ; 
that  the  head  shall  be  kept  erect ;  that  the  eyes  be 
directed  to  the  front,  striking  the  floor  or  ground 
twelve  paces  off;  and  that  the  arms  and  hands  be 
held  correctly. 

One  Movement  at  a  Time. 

Teach  one  movement  a  day,  and  in  a  few  days 
your  pupils  will  be  familiar  with  all  the  movements. 
They  should  be  drilled  upon  these  movements  before 
taking  up  Calisthenics.  The  discipline  of  the  school 
will  be  very  much  easier  if  the  teacher  will  introduce 
a  system ;  two  or  three  minutes  practice  each  day 
will  insure  success,  and  add  to  the  happiness  of  the 

pupils. 

Calisthenics. 

A  systematic  drill  of  a  few  minutes  each  day  will 
relieve  the  monotony  of  school-room  routine. 

Children  in  the  primary  classes  become  very 
weary  ;  "  activity  is  a  law  of  childhood — inactivity 
is  the  symbol  of  death,  if  not  death  itself."  The 
pupils  will  take  interest  in  the  exercise  and  beneficial 
results  will  be  attained.  It  will  improve  the  pupils 
in  their  walk,  giving  a  lighter  step,  producing  grace 
and  symmetry  in  all  their  movements.  It  will  give 
vigor,  and  tone  up  pupils  to  increased  effort  in 
study, 


CALISTHENICS. 


« 

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G  SyttOSwWWj^ggfj-Q1 

»    pr  5"  ;--2  'S.'p,  ^P-    <  E.JL  ^- 


880 


DISCIPLINARY  EXERCISES. 


I.  Chest  Exercise. 

Command — Chest  Exercise— Position — Play! 

Command. — At  the  word  of  command  the  pupils 
should,  in  this  and  in  the  following  exercises,  take 
the  positions  promptly,  with  decision,  and  in  perfect 
time. 

Position. — Stand  erect,  with  heels  together,  and  oil 
the  same  line  ;  toes  turned  equally  out,  and  forming 
with  each  other  an  angle  of  60°  ;  knees  straight,  with- 
out stiffness  ;  shoulders  square  and  falling  equally  ; 
arms  hanging  naturally  by  the  side,  with  elbows  near 
the  body  ;  hands  firmly  closed  ;  head  well  set,  and 
eyes  directly  to  the  front. 


1st  Movement. 


r\.  Right  hand  on  chest. 
2.  Leffr  hand  on  chest. 
3   Right  arm  extended  horizontally 
in  front,  four  times. 

4.  Left  arm  extended  horizontally 

in  front,  four  times. 

5.  Alternate  ;  right  arm,  return  ;  left 

arm,  return  ;  two  times. 
Simultaneous,    both    arms,     four 
times. 


k    ILT^TT 


1.  Right  hand  on  chest. 

2.  Left  hand  on  chest. 

3.  Right  arm  perpendicularly  down- 

ward,  four  times. 

4.  Left  arm  perpendicularly  down- 

ward,  four  times. 

5.  Alternate. 

6.  Simultaneous. 


CALISTHENICS. 


351 


1.  Right  hand  on  chest. 

2.  Left  hand  on  chest. 

3.  Right  arm  extended  horizontally 
,  A  ig                  j  to  the  right,  four  times. 

'nt-  *  4  Left  arm  extended  horizontally 
to  the  left,  four  times. 

5.  Alternate. 

6.  Simultaneous. 


II.  Arm-pit  Exercise. 

Command — Arm-pit  Exercise — Positions-Play  ! 

1.  Right  hand  at  arm- pit. 

2.  Left  hand  at  arm-pit. 

3.  Right  arm  perpendicularly  down- 

1st  Movement.  ^   LeftTu^^penSarly  down- 
ward,  four  times. 

5.  Alternate. 

6.  Simultaneous. 


'1.  Hands  in  the  same  position  aa 
before. 

2d  Movement        2>  Riffht  arm'  four  time9- 
/nt-  <  3.  Left  arm,  four  times. 

4.  Alternate. 

5.  Simultaneous. 


3d  Movement.  - 


1.  Hands  in  the  same  position  aa 

before. 

2.  Right  arm  perpendicularly  up 

ward,  four  times. 

3.  Left   arm  perpendicularly    up- 

ward, four  times. 

4.  Alternate. 

5.  Simultaneous. 


III.  Shoulder  Exercise. 

Command — Shoulder  Exercise — Position — Play! 

{1.  Raise  the  right  shoulder,  4  times, 
2.  Raise  the  left  shoulder,  4  times 
3.  Alternate. 
4.  Simultaneous. 

1.  Right  shoulder,  forward,  once. 

2.  Right  shoulder,  upward,  once. 
8.  Right  shoulder, backward,  once. 
4.  Right  shoulder,downward,onee. 
5    Repeat,  two  times. 

6.  Left  shoulder,  forward,  once. 

7.  Left  shoulder,  upward,  once. 

8.  Left  shoulder,  backward,  once. 

9.  Left  shoulder,  downward,  once. 

10.  Repeat,  two  times. 

11.  Alternate. 

12.  Simultaneous. 


Movement. 


IV.  Elbow  Exercise. 

Command — Elbow  Exercise — Position —  Play  I 

f  1.  Hands  on  hips,  fingers  front. 
I  2.  Throw  the  right  elbow  back,  four 
I  times. 

1st  Movement.  •(  3.  Throw  the  left  elbow  back,  foul 
|  times. 

4.  Alternate. 
15.  Simultaneous. 


8d  Movement. 


1.  Right  elbow,  forward,  once. 

2.  Right  elbow,  backward,  one* 

3.  Repeat,  three  times. 

4.  Left  elbow,  forward,  once. 

5.  Left  elbow,  backward,  once. 

6.  Repeat,  three  times. 

7.  Alternate,  four  times. 

.8.  Simultaneous,  four  times. 


CALISTHENICS. 


381 


T.  Arm  Exercise. 

Command — Arm  Exercise — Position — Play  ! 

1.  Hands  together,  in  front. 

2.  Left  hand,  retain  position. 

8.  Right  hand  thrown  back,  eight 

times  ;  clap  the  hands. 
1st  Moyement.  •  4.  Right  hand,  retain  position. 

|  5.  Left  hand  thrown  back,   eight 

times ;  clap  the  hand. 
I  6.  Alternate,  clap  the  hands. 
(.7.  Simultaneous,  clap  the  hands. 

TI.  Hand  and  Finger  Exercise 

Command — Hand  Exercise — Position — Play  ! 

1.  Stand  erect,  with  hands  at  side, 

and  fingers  firmly  closed. 

2.  Right  hand  twist,  as  in  boring 
1st  Movement.  •  with  a  gimlet,  lour  times. 

I  3.  Left  hand,  four  times. 
I  4.  Alternate,  four  times. 
[5.  Simultaneous,  four  times. 


Id  Movement. 


8d  Movement. 


'1.  Right  hand  extended  perpendic- 
ularly upward,  rotate  four 
times. 

2.  Left  hand,  four  times. 

3.  Alternate,  four  times. 

4.  Simultaneous,  four  times. 

1.  Right  arm  extended  perpendicu- 

larly upward,   with    fingers 
spread  apart,  and  shut,  four 
times. 

2.  Left  arm,  four  times. 

3.  Alternate,  four  times. 

.4.  Simultaneous,  four  times. 


S84 


DISCIPLINARY  EXERCISES. 


VII.  Head  and  Neck  Exercise. 

Command — Head  and  Neck  Exercise— Position — Play! 

f  1.  Turn  the  head  horizontally  to  the 
right  so  that  the  face  will  be 

I^TW™  on  the  shoulder,   four  times. 

•nl>   \2.  Turn  the  head  horizontally  to  the 

lelt,  four  times. 
[3.  Alternate. 

1.  Bow  the  head  to  the  front,  four 

times. 
2d  Movement.  -(  2.  Head  backward,  four  times. 

3.  To  the  right,  four  times. 

4.  To  the  left,  four  times. 


3d  Movement. 


1.  To  the  front,  once. 

2.  To  the  right,  once. 

3.  To  the  back,  once. 

4.  To  the  left,  once. 


Till.  Arm  Exercise. 

Command — Arm  Exercise — Position — Play  ! 

f  1.  Palms  together. 

I  2.  Arms  extended, horizontal,  front. 

.  ,.,  13.  Right  arm,  four  times. 

1st  Movement.  {  4    jjj  ^  'f(mr  timeg 

I  5.  Alternate, 
[6.  Simultaneous. 

1.  Position  like  No.  1. 

2.  Swing  right  arm  from  the  hori- 

zontal front  up  to  the  perpen- 
dicular, four  times. 

2d  Movement.  \  3.  Swing  left  arm  from  the  hori- 
zontal front  up  to  the  perpen« 
dicular,  four  times. 

4.  Alternate. 

5.  Simultaneous. 


CALISTHENICS. 


1.  Position  as  in  No.  1. 

2.  Swing  the  right  arm  outward  and 

backward,  four  times. 
8d  Movement.  •(  8.  Swing  the  left  arm  outward  and 

backward,  four  times. 
4.  Alternate. 
^5.  Simultaneous. 

IX.  Stepping  Exercise. 

Command — Stepping  Exerei*e — Position — Play  I 

'  1    Place  the  hands  about  the  waist, 
thumbs  in  front. 

2.  Step  obliquely  to  the  right,  front, 
1st  Movement.  \  four  limes. 

3.  Step  obliquely  to  the  left,  front, 

four  times. 

4.  Alternate. 

1.  Same  position  as  in  No.  1. 

2.  Step  obliquely  to  the  right,  rear, 

four  times. 

3.  Step  obliquely  to  the  left,  rear, 

four  times. 
4t  Alternate. 

1.  Same  position  as  in  No.  1. 

2.  Step  to  the  right,  four  times. 

3.  Step  to  the  left,  four  times. 

4.  Alternate. 


2d  Movement. 


8d  Movement. 


X.  Slapping  Exercise. 

Oommand — Slapping  Exercize — Position — Play  ! 

'1.  Arms     extended     horizontally 

front. 

2.  Palms  together. 
8   Strike  left  hand  with  right,  four 
1st  Movement.  \  times. 

4.  Strike  right  hand  with  left,  tour 

times. 

5.  Alternate. 

6.  Simultaneous. 


DISCIPLINARY  EXERCISES. 


'  1.  Arms  perpendicular. 
2.  Strike  left  hand  with  right,  four 

times. 
3d  Movement.  \  3.  Strike  right  hand  with  left,  four 

times. 

4.  Alternate. 
.5.  Simultaneous. 
'1.  Arms  placed  behind. 
2.  Strike  left  hand  with  right,  four 

times. 
3d  Movement.    '•(  3.  Strike  right  hand  with  left,  four 

times. 

4.  Alternate. 
.5.  Simultaneous. 

XI.  Chopping  Exercise. 

Command — Chopping  Exercise — Position — Play  ! 

f  1.  Hands  raised  above  the  head  to 

Ithe  right,  four  times. 
2.  Hands  raised  above  the  head  to 
the  left,  four  times. 
3.  Alternate. 

f  1.  Hands  raised  above  the  head  to 

the  left,  four  times. 

2d  Movernem.  \  2.  Hands  raised  above  the  head  to 
I  the  right,  four  times. 

[3    Alternate. 

XII.  Moving  Exercise. 

Command — Moving  Exercise — Position — Play  ! 
(\.  Arms  to  the  right. 

2.  Move  horizontally  to  the  left,  in 

front,  four  times. 

3.  Move  horizontally  to  the  left,  at 
Movements.  4  the  right,  four  times. 

4.  Move  horizontally  to    the  left, 

behind,  four  times. 

5.  Move  horizontally  to  the  left,  at 

the  left,  four  times. 


CALISTHENICS. 


387 


Movements.  - 


XIII.  Sawing  Exercise. 

Command — Sawing  Exercise — Position — Play  ! 

1.  Elbow  above  the    line  of  the 

shoulder. 

2.  Down  in  front,  four  times. 

3.  Turn  to  the  right,  down,  four 

times. 

4.  Turn  to    the   rear,  down,  four 

times. 

5.  Turn  to  the    left,    down,  four 
|  times. 

1,6.  To  your  place. 

XIV.  Trunk  Exercise. 

Comma  nd —  Trunk  Exercise — Position — Play  f 

1.  Hand  about  the  waist,  thumbs  in 

front. 

2.  Bend    the    body     horizontally 

front,  four  times. 

3.  Bend  the  body  horizontally  to 

the  left,  four  times. 

4.  Bend  the  body  horizontally  to 

the  rear,  four  times. 

5.  Bend  the  body  horizontally  to 

the  right,  four  times. 

r  General  Remarks  and  Explanations. 

These  exercises  are  intended  for  those  teachers 
who  have  learned  no  system.  They  are  simple,  and 
by  taking  one  exercise  at  a  time  the  whole  series 
may  soon  be  put  in  practice.  Much  of  the  benefit 
derived  from  Calisthenics  is  from  the  alternation  of 
rigid  and  relaxed  muscles.  There  should  be  an 
accent  to  the  motion,  and  that  accent  should  occur 
on  the  outward  movement ;  hence  the  muscles 
should  be  firm  in  the  outward  movement,  and  re- 
laxed in  the  return. 


Movements.  - 


888  DISCIPLINAET  EXERCISES. 

The   Position. 

The  position  the  children  are  to  assume  should  be 
explained  before  the  command  is  given.  When  the 
"  Exercise "  is  called,  all  should  take  position  in- 
stantly. The  beauty  of  the  exercise  consists  in 
regularity. 

On  the  word  "  Play,"  the  musician  should  begin 
instantly,  and  the  pupils  should  begin  at  the  same 
instant,  following  their  leader. 

Explain  all  the  Movements. 

The  teacher  should  take  pains  to  explain  all  the 
movements  before  he  requires  execution  ;  and  then 
see  that  all  understand  them,  else  there  will  be  no 
uniformity  in  the  movements.  . 

Direction  of  Movement. 

This  order  is  tabulated  under  the  head  of  "  Calis- 
thenics," and  it  means  the  line  of  course  in  which  we 
move.  All  movements  made  before  are  called 
•'  front ; "  those  made  directly  on  the  right  or  left  are 
called  "  extended  ; "  those  made  between  the  "  front" 
and  "  extended  "  are  called  "  oblique  ; "  and,  lastly, 
those  made  back  of  the  extended  are  called  "  back- 
oblique,"  or  backward.  All  motions  made  on  a  line 
with  the  shoulder  are  called  "  horizontal ; "  all  below 
a  line  with  the  shoulder  are  called  "  descending  ;  " 
all  above  a  line  with  the  shoulder  are  called  "  ascend- 
ing." 

Order  of  Movement. 

This  means  the  successive  order  in  which  the  right 
or  left  hand,  arm,  etc.,  are  used  in  the  movements. 


CALISTHENICS. 


Single  movement  is  when  the  movements  are  made 
first  with  the  right  hand  or  arm  ;  then  with  the  left, 
each  a  certain  number  of  times,  generally  four ; 
second,  alternate  with  the  right  and  left  a  corres- 
ponding number  of  times  ;  and  third,  a  simultaneous 
movement  of  the  right  and  left  the  same  number  of 
times. 

Double  order  is  made  with  both  hands  simul- 
taneously. 

Time. 

The  best  way  to  teach  the  time,  is  to  count,  at  first. 
Count  one  on  the  outward  movement ;  two  on  the 
return,  and  so  on,  till  you  count  eight.  Commence 
all  movements  with  the  right  band,  arm,  etc.  Count 
eight  for  the  right  hand,  then  eight  for  the  left,  eight 
on  the  alternate  movement  and  eight  on  the  simul- 
taneous action. 

List  01  Books  on  Calisthenics  and  Gym- 
nastics* 

Root's  School  Amusements — A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co., 
New  York.  $1.50. 

Smart's  Manual  of  Calisthenics — Wilson,  Hinkle 
&  Co.,  New  York.  20  cts. 

Potter's  Manual  of  Reading— Harper  &  Brothers, 
New  York.  $1.40. 

The  Song  Budget,  15  cts. ;  The  Song  Chorus,  35  cts. 

Davis,  Bardeen  &  Co.,  Syracuse,  who  will  also 

supply  any  of  the  above. 


SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

School  organization  is  a  system  of  arrangement 
designed  to  secure  constant  employment,  efficient  in- 
struction and  moral  control.  It  aims  at  providing 
the  means  of  instructing  and  educating  the  greatest 
number  in  the  moet  efficient  manner,  and  by  the 
most  economical  expenditure  of  time  and  money. 

Organization  puts  each  child  in  its  proper  place  ; 
allots  to  each  class  proper  work,— proper  in  kind  and 
amount ;  secures  to  each  subject  the  time  that  is  just- 
ly its  due  ;  arranges  the  work,  both  as  to  place  and 
kind,  so  as  to  preserve  a  quiet  room,  and  properly 
distributes  the  work,  so  that  no  interest  of  the  school 
in  any  of  its  parts  shall  suffer. 

I  know  full  well  the  anxiety  with  which  the  young 
and  inexperienced  teacher  anticipates  the  opening 
of  the  first  school.  The  first  questions  that  arise  in 
the  mind  are:  What  shall  I  do?  How  ~»hdtt  I  do  itf 
WfiensJiattldoit? 

To  organize,  govern  and  discipline  a  school  suc- 
cessfully, requires  in-born  qualities.  It  is  very  much 
easier  for  a  general  to  command  an  army,  than  for  a 
teacher  to  govern  a  school  ;  for  a  general  has  to  con 
rider  only  immediate  results,  besides  being  invested 


HOW  TO  BEGIN.  3W 

"With  absolute  power,  while  the  teacher  has  to  con- 
sider chiefly  results  to  be  attained  in  the  future,  and 
he  is  forbidden  by  considerations  of  his  own  and  the 
pupils'  good,  to  exercise  other  than  qualified  author- 
ity. ' 

Choice  of  a  School. 

The  young  teacher  should  not  select  a  difficult 
school  at  first.  Too  many  teach  for  the  pecuniary' 
reward,  and  others  do  not  consider  whether  or  not 
they  are  adapted  to  particular  schools. 

Contract. 

The  contract  should  be  in  writing  and  express  def- 
initely the  conditions.  Both  parties  should  have  a 
copy.  Like  all  other  business,  it  should  be  done  in  a 
business-like  manner.  Printed  forms  for  these  con- 
tracts may  be  obtained  of  Davis,  Bardeen  &  Co., 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  at  ten  cents  a  pair. 

Preparation  for  First  Day's  Work. 

This  is  all  important.  The  seeds  of  failure  are  fre- 
quently sown  the  first  hour.  The  teacher  should 
have  a  plan  in  his  mind  ;  just  what  he  will  do;  how  he 
wttdoit;  and  when  he  will  do  it.  He  should  not  try 
to  accomplish  too  much  the  first  day ;  must  not  be  too 
anxious  about  courting  the  favor  of  pupils — good  dis- 
cipline cannot  be  established  in  a  day  ;  should  use 
words  expressive  of  friendly  feelings  and  good  inten- 
tions; should  not  let  frowns  cloud  the  brow,  even 
though  all  may  not  be,  at  the  outset,  just  as  one  might 
wish  ;  should  leave  nothing  to  the  impulse  of  the 
moment ;  should  be  firm,  watchful  and  uniform,  and 
shoul^endeavor  to  make  ihe  first  impression  pleasant 


892  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 

The  First  Exercises. 

Do  not  attempt  to  hear  recitations  the  first  morn- 
ing ;  after  openiug  the  school  with  a  general  exercise, 
let  them  all  join  in  singing  some  familiar  piece  ;  this 
will  dispel  embarrassment. 

Enrolling  the  Pupils. 

Write  on  the  board  the  requirements,  and  pass 
slips  of  paper,  letting  all  that  can  write  hand  in  the 
following,  viz  : 

1.  The  full  Christian  name. 

2.  The  full  Christian  name  of  parent  or  guardian. 
8.  Residence. 

4.  Age. 

Let  some  pupils  pass  around  and  take  the  names, 
etc.,  of  those  who  cannot  write. 

Classification. 

In  the  highest  classes  institute  a  written  examina- 
tion. This  can  be  made  a  test  exercise  in  spelling, 
penmanship,  and  the  use  of  language.  The  ques- 
tions need  not  be  difficult ;  ten  questions  upon  the 
different  subjects  will  test  the  knowledge  of  the  pu- 
pils as  well  as  twenty.  The  pupils  that  cannot  write 
should  be  examined  orally,  and  a  record  kept  of  the 
standing  of  each  pupil.  It  is  not  best  to  make  sud- 
'den  and  radical  changes  ;  better  adopt  the  classifica- 
tion of  your  predecessor,  if  you  have  not  confidence 
in  your  own  ability. 

Make  all  changes  gradually  and  quietly  and  let  the 
pupils  see  that  it  is  for  their  interest  and  the  good  of 
liie  school.  • 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAMME.  393 

Forming  Classes. 

After  having  carefully  graded  the  pupils,  then  at 
tempt  a  temporary  classification.  It  will  be  impossi- 
ble to  adopt  a  permanent  classification  at  first,  and  the 
pupils  should  so  understand  it. 

There  should  not  be  more  than  four  grades  in  the 
public  schools.  The  primer  and  first  reader  should 
constitute  the  D  grade ;  the  second  reader,  the  C 
grade  ;  the  third  reader,  the  B  grade  ;  and  the  fourth 
reader  the  A  grade.  The  number  of  classes  in  each 
grade  should  not  exceed  four,  and,  by  dose  classifica- 
tion, they  need  not  exceed  this  number. 

Programme  of  Exercises. 

The  teacher  is  now  ready  to  draw  up  the  plan  of 
v>ork,  specifying  the  number  of  classes  and  the  time 
of  beginning,  ending,  and  the  length  of  each  recita- 
tion. 

The  programme  should  provide  for  study  as  well 
as  for  recitation. 

Advantages  of  a  programme  : — 

1.  It  lessens  the  labor  of  teaching. 

2.  It  makes  teaching  more  effective. 

3.  It  promotes  good  order. 

4.  It  cultivates  systematic  habits. 

5.  It  promotes  the  ambition  of  pupils. 

While  it  is  well  to  follow  the  programme  carefully, 
yet  the  organization  and  discipline  must  not  be  too 
mechanical,  or  pupils  will  tire  of  it  No  change 
in  classes  should  be  made  for  visitors,  unless  bj 
special  request. 


304  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 

Class  Movements. 

Pupils  should  be  seated  according  to  classification 
so  far  as  practicable,  and  graded  according  to  height, 
seating  the  tallest  pupils  in  the  rear.  The  teacher 
should  have  the  entire  charge  of  seating  the  pupils. 
Teachers  should  change  seat-mates  when  advisable. 
As  a  rule  it  is  not  best  to  place  pupils  of  the  same 
temperament  together.  The  class  movements  should 
be  conducted  with  precision,  and  no  disorder  should 
be  allowed  in  the  room.  In  no  instance  should  the 
school-room  be  used  as  a  play  ground. 

.Proper  Care  01  the  School-Room. 

The  pupils  should  not  be  allowed  to  deface,  de- 
stroy, or  in  any  way  injure  the  school  property.  They 
should  be  required  to  keep  the  school-room  in  perfect 
order,  and  have  a  place  for  their  books  and  imple- 
ments of  work. 

.Special  Privileges. 

But  very  few  special  privileges  should  be  granted 
to  pupils,  such  as  leaving  seats,   speaking  to  one 
another,  asking  questions  of  teachers,  making  com- 
plaints to  teachers,  receiving  help  from  the  teacher, 
etc.  In  a  thoroughly  organized  school  the  granting  of 
these  privileges  take  but  little,  if  any  time. 
Keep  up  a  Spirit  of  Work. 
Extract  from  the  Report  of  Supt.  William  T.  Harru, 
St.  Louis. 

Listlessness  in  the  school-room  is  traced  to  : 

1.  Lack  of  proper  ventilation. 

2.  Lack  of  equal  temperature. 


WANTED:   A  SPIRIT  OF  WORK.  895 

8  Too  iong  recitations  for  the  strength  of  the 
pupils. 

4.  Injudicious  and  too  frequent  concert  recitation. 

5.  The  practice  of  "  keeping  in  "  pupils  at  recess  or 
after  school  for  failure  in  lessons  or  misbehavior. 

6.  Lack  of  definite  analysis  of  the  subject  of  the 
lesson  by  the  teacher  during  recitation. 

7.  Substitution  of  individual  explanation  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  for  correction  (in  the  class)  of  bad 
habits  of  study. 

On  entering  the  room  of  a  careless  or  inexperienced 
teacher,  the  visitor  is  struck  by  the  lifeless  atmos- 
phere that  seems  to  pervade  both  teacher  and  pupils. 
The  pupils  all  turn  their  gaze  upon  him  as  he  enters 
and  stare  abstractedly,  forgetful  of  the  presence  of 
the  teacher  and  of  the  purpose  of  their  attendance  at 
school.  The  teacher  languidly,  or  with  a  slight  flush 
of  surprise  and  embarassment,  invites  to  a  seat.  After 
a  little,  the  pupils  settle  back  into  the  condition  pre- 
vailing berore  the  entrance  of  the  visitor.  The  pupils 
at  their  seats  are  variously  employed  :  many  are  lean- 
ing over  their  desks,  their  faces  full  of  ennui;  others 
are  endeavoring  to  relieve  the  tedium  of  the  slow 
creeping  hour  by  ingenious  devices  of  their  own — 
pin-traps,  spit-balls,  picture-books  under  the .  desks, 
writing  notes  to  their  fellows,  making  caricatures  on 
slates,  scratching  furniture,  telegraphing  on  a  small 
scale,  etc., — some  have  books  open  before  them, 
others  not ;  the  class  that  is  "on  the  line"  for  recita- 
tion are  leaning  against  the  blackboards  behind  them, 
or  against  the  desks  in  front  of  them  ;  some  are  pay, 
ing  attentioi  to  the  lesson,  others  are  busied  with  the 


896  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 

pupils  at  their  seats.    The  teacher  is  distracted  and 
confused. 

Take  the  room  as  a  whole,  and  the  lack  of  the  one 
spirit  that  should  prevail  in  it  is  painful  to  witness. 
The  almost  audible  sigh  of  the  whole  is  :  "  Oh,  that 
school  were  out ! "  The  visitor  thinks  of  the  Lostos- 
Eaters  and  of  the 

"Land 

In  which  it  seemed  always  aftern6on  ; 
All  round  the  coast,  the  languid  air  did  swoon, 
Breathing  Jike  one  that  had  a  weary  dream." 

The  visitor  (who  has  come  to  inspect  the  school) 
-looks  carefully  into  the  methods  of  instruction  and 
discipline  in  order  that  he  may  discover  the  primary 
causes  of  this  failure,  and  suggest  its  remedy. 

He  notes  :  "  This  teacher  has  no  force  ;  she  has 
no  hold  over  these  pupils ;  she  does  not  make  up  her 
mind  at  the  outset  that  she  will  have  this&nd  not  that; 
she  commands  incessantly,  and  does  not  wait  to  see 
•whether  any  command  is  obeyed ;  she  obviously  has 
not  prepared  herself  on  the  lesson  before  coming  to 
school,  for,  see,  she  holds  the  text-book  in  her  hand 
and  is  closely  confined  to  the  text  while  she  asks 
questions;  at  obvious  allusions  to  the  subject  of  the 
previous  lesson  she  does  not  pause  to  call  it  up,  nor 
does  she  illustrate  the  difficult  portions  of  the  lesson 
for  to-day  ;  while  she  is  looking  in  the  book  for  the 
next  question  a  pupil  has  answered  the  previous  one 
inaccurately,  or  has  omitted  the  essential  point ;  she 
treats  the  important  and  unimportant  questions  alike; 
no  wonder  the  pupils  are  listless  1" 

But  he  sees  that  this  phase  is  not  the  only  one 
wherein  the  teacher  acts  like  a  novice  ;  in  the  more 


IS  YOUR  SCHOOL  LIKE  THIS?  391 

general  programme  similar  defects  manifest  them- 
selves which  he  notes  accordingly: 

The  class  is  too  large  and  too  much  time  is  taken 
to  hear  it ;  the  lesson  for  the  next  day  is  too  long,  and 
no  directions  are  given  as  to  how  to  study  it;  all  those 
who  fail  are  kept  in  at  recess  or  after  school ;  some 
receive  individual  explanations,  and  consequently 
get  in  the  habit  of  crowding  around  the  teacher's 
desk,  and  of  depending  on  his  direct  assistance. 
Added  to  this,  the  teacher  hears  many  parts  of  the 
lesson  in  concert,  and  the  consequence  is,  only  those 
portions  of  the  lessons  are  dwelt  upon  that  are  most 
mechanical,  for  only  such  can  be  recited  in  concert 
— discriminating  and  original  answers  cannot  be 
in  concert — concert  answers  must  be  something  ver- 
batim and  short  answers:  "Yes,  sir,"  "No,  sir," 
"Atlantic  Ocean,"  and  the  like.  Complete  answers 
are  made  by  the  smart  pupils,  while  the  dull  ones 
follow  the  lead  and  join  in  towards  the  end  of  the 
answer.  The  bright  pupil  answers  the  whole  : 
"  twenty-five  thousand  miles  ;"  the  less  bright  one 
says :  "  five  thousand  miles  ;"  and  the  dull  one  : 
"  thousand  miles  ;"  the  dullest  comes  in  at  the  word 
"  miles."  These  pupjils  have  not  the  power  or  disci- 
pline of  mind  to  concentrate  their  attention  for  so 
long  a  recitation  ;  they  get  fatigued  before  it  is 
through,  and  listlessness  is  the  result. 

Again  :  "  The  ventilation  is  not  attended  to,  and 
the  impure  air  causes  incipient  congestion  of  the 
brain,  and  a  few  of  the  delicate  ones  have  headaches, 
while  all  feel  that  apathy  and  indifference  which  it 
its  premonitory  symptom." 


398  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 

*'  Most  important  is  the  failure  of  the  teacher  ;  she 
does  not  practise  a  system  of  definite  analysis  of  the  les- 
son at  recitation.  She  asks  probing  questions  only  sel- 
dom ;  the  pupil  is  not  made  to  seize  the  subject  and 
analyze  it  till  he  thoroughly  understands  jt.  The 
consequence  is,  he  does  not  know  how  to  study  the 
next  lesson,  nor  when  he  has  learned  it,  and 
therefore  does  not  study  at  his  seat,  having  no  definite 
sense  of  his  deficiency  and  of  his  ability  to  overcome 
it." 

These  causes  of  failure  when  generalized  may  be 
traced  to  one  prevailing  defect  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  And  this  may  be  described  thus  :  The 
teacher  fails  because  she  does  not  pay  careful  atten- 
tion to  the  power  for  work  which  her  pupils  actually 
possess,  and  so  lay  out  tasks  and  secure  their  accomp- 
lishment (is  to  increase  constantly  this  power  for  work. 
Previous  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  in- 
dispensable for  this  result.  Everything  should  be 
digested  by  the  teacher  before  entering  the  school- 
room ;  she  should  re-inforce  the  moments  by  the  hours, 
and  tlus  be  able  at  all  times  to  bring  to  bear  the  en- 
tire weight  of  her  character  upon  the  pupil.  The 
practice  of  keeping  the  pupil  in  at  recess  for  failure 
in  lessons  is  very  baneful  in  its  effects.  The  cause 
of  the  failure  is  probably  owing  to  inability  to  con- 
centrate his  mind,  and  here  the  cure  prescribed  is 
calculated  to  heighten  the  disease.  The  teacher 
should  get  the  lesson  into  such  shape  that  the  pupil 
can  master  it  by  a  general  assault,  and  he  should  not 
be  allowed — at  home  or  in  school — to  make  a  dissi- 
pated, scattering  attack  on  it. 


PROGRAMME  FOR  UNGRADED  SCHOOLS.  399 

PROGRAMME  FOR  AN  UNGRADED  SCHOOL. 

D.  Class— 1st  Term. 

ReadiDg— First  Reader,  half  through  ;  give  special 

attention  to  tone. 
Numbers— (a)  Learn  figures. 

(b)  Add  and  subtract  by  ones  with  tables. 

(c)  Count,  notate  and  numerate  to  50. 
Spelling — All  the  new  words  in  the  reader. 
"Writing — The  words  learned  in  reading  and  writing 

the  pupil's  own  name  with  correct  use  of 
capitals. 

P.  Class— 2d  Term. 
Reading — Last  half  of  Reader. 
Numbers— (o)  Addition  and  Subtraction  and  Multi- 
plication by  1's  and  2's ;  Min.  and 
Prod,  not  to  exceed  24. 
(b)  Roman  Numerals  found  in  reader. 
Spelling — Same  as  first  term. 

Writing — Words  learned  with  proper  use  of  capitals. 
Place — (a)  The  cardinal  and  semi-cardinal  points  and 

applications. 

(b)  Lessons  preparatory  to  giving  the  bound- 
ary o'f  the  room,  such  as  ceiling,  cor- 
ners, sides,  &c. 

Golor — Distinguishing  and  naming  color. 
Size— General  idea  of  size  ;  large  and  small ;  larger 
and  smaller  ;  largest  and  smallest.    Also, 
long  and  short,  with  the  three  degrees. 
Also,  height,  with  the  degrees. 


400  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 

C.  Class— 1st  Term. 

Reading- -Half  Second   Reader  ;    special    attention 

given  to  pronunciation  and  tone. 
Numbers— (a)  Addition   and  subtraction  and  multi- 
plication witb  tables  of  1's,  2's  and 
3's  ;  sum  or  min.  not  to  exceed  36. 
(ft)  Addition  of  columns  of  tens  and  units; 
no  figures  greater  than  three,  and  the 
sum  of  no  column  greater  than  36. 
(c)  Roman  Numerals  with  reading. 
Spelling — All  words  used  in  reading  by  sound  and  let- 
ter. 
Writing — Instruction  from  board. 

Place — (a)  Draw  map  of  streets  or  roads  of  Village  or 

District,  and  locate  buildings. 
(b)  Name  town  and  district  officers. 

C.  Class— 2d  Term. 

Reading — Finish  Reader. 

(a)  Give  instruction  in  vowels. 
Numbers — (a)  Addition  and  subtraction  of  1's,  2's, 

3's,  4*s,  5's  ;  sum  or  min.  not  to  ex- 
ceed 60. 

(b)  Multiplication  and  division  ;  the  sum, 

multiple  and  quotient  not  to  exceed 
12. 

(c)  Notation  and  numeration  to  1,000,000 
Writing — Copy  on  the  board. 

Spelling — Words  in  reading  lesson. 
Place — (a)  Teacher  have  map  of  county. 


PROGRAMME  FOR  UNGRADED  SCHOOLS.  40i 

(b)  Children  name,  locate  and  bound  towns. 

(c)  Tell  direction  each  is  from  the  other. 

(d)  Name  towns  through  which  railroads  pass. 

(e)  Name  and  locate  villages  of  each. 
(/)  Name  and  locate  creeks  and  rivers. 
(g)  Give  population  of  towns  and  county. 
(k)  Explain  and  name  county  seat. 

(i)  Name  town  officers  and  duties  of  each. 
(J)  Draw  map  of  county  and  give  sq.  miles. 
(K)  Review. 

B.  Class— 1st  Term. 

Reading— Half  of  Third  Reader.  Particular  atten- 
tion to  pronunciation  and  modulation. 

Numbers — Finish  division — written  and  intellectual, 
and  review.  Combination  in  notation  and 
numeration  to  1,000,000. 

Spelling— Words   in    Third    Reader— abbreviations 

found  in  reading  or  spelling. 
Penmanship — Instruction   from    board    and  No.   4 

Writing-Book. 

Grammar — Primary,  first-half. 
Geography — One-half  Primary,  with  drawing  maps 

of  same. 

B.  Class— 2d  Term. 

Reading— Finish  ThircKReader.  Particular  attention 
to  pronunciation,  modulation  and  inflec- 
tion. 

Numbers — Decimal  and  common  fractions  ;  review. 
Spelling— Words  in  Reader  and  Geography. 


402  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 

Penmanship — Class  exercises  and  No.  5. 
Grammar — Finish  Primary. 

Geography — Primary  with  map  drawings  for  same* 
A.  Class— First  Term. 

Reading — Fourth  Reader  ;  attention  to  thought,  ex- 
pression and  pronunciation,  to  precede  the 
exercise. 

Arithmetic — Denominate  numbers  and  simple  and 
compound  interest. 

Spelling — In  word-book,  words  written. 

Penmanship — Book  6  ;  class  instruction  from  board. 

Grammar — Orthography  and  etymology. 

Geography — With  map-drawing. 

A.  Class— 2d  Term.. 

Reading — Fourth  Reader ;  attention  as  before. 

Arithmetic  —  Percentage,  insurance,  commission, 
profit  and  loss,  taxes,  discount,  govern- 
ment securities  and  proportion. 

Spelling — Word-book,  words  written. 

Penmanship — Book  7,  and  class  exercise. 

Grammar — Syntax  and  review. 

Geography 

School  Exercise  in  History — Teacher  write  a  fact 
upon  the  board,  talk  about  it  and  relate 
incidents  which  they  have  gathered  regard- 
ing it.  Review  each  day. 

Civil  Government— The  same. 


PROUKAMM.E  FOR  UNGRADED  SCHOOLS.  408 


Programme  of  Exercises  for  an  Ungraded 
School. 


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404 


SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 


Programme  of  Exercises  for  a  County 


110BNING  SESSION. 

MONDAY. 

TUESDAY. 

9  00  to   902—  Roll  Call. 
902  to  910--Dev.  Exer. 
9  10  to   9  15—  Singing. 
9  15  to    9  50—  Instrnct'n. 
950to   955-Rest. 
9  55  to  10  80—  Instrnct'n. 
10  £0  to  10  40—  Best. 
10  40  to  11  15—  Instruct'n. 
11  15  to  11  20—  Rest. 
11  20  to  11  55—  Instrnct'n. 
11  55  to  12  00-8inglng. 

Roll  Call. 
Devotional  Exer. 
Singing. 
School  Organlz'n. 
Rest. 
Civil  Government. 
Rest. 
Phonic  Analysis. 
Rest. 
Language. 
Singing. 

Roll  Call. 
Devotional  Exer. 
Singing. 
School  Managem't. 
Rest. 
Language. 
Best. 
Arithmetic. 
Rest. 
Civil  Government. 
Singing. 

AFTEBNOON  SESSION. 

MONDAY. 

TUESDAY. 

2  00  to   202—  Roll  Call. 
2  02  to  2  10—  Singing. 
2  10  to  245—  Instruct'n. 
2  45  to   2  50—  Rest. 
2  50  to  8  25—  Instruct'n. 
8  25  to   3  85—  Rest. 
3  85  to   4  1-0—  Instruct'n. 
4  10  to   415-Rest. 
4  15  to    4  50—  Instrnct'n. 
8  50  to  500—  Miscell'n's. 

Roll  Call. 
Singing. 
Number. 
Rest. 
Primary  Reading. 
Rest. 
Spelling. 
Rest. 
Penmanship. 
Query  Box. 

Roll  Call. 
Singing. 
Grammar. 
Rest. 
Geography. 
Rest. 
Reading. 
Rest. 
History. 
Query  Box. 

EVENINO  CESSION. 

MONDAY. 

TUESDAY. 

7  SO  to  736-Slnging. 
7  85  to   8  00—  Discussion 
900  to  900—  Lecture. 

Singing. 
Discussion. 
Lecture. 

Singing. 
Discussion. 
Lecture. 

Sessions  will  begin  promptly  on  time ;  twenty  minutes'  notice 


FUfi  A  TEACHERS  INSTITUTE. 


406 


Teach  irs'  Institute  of  One  Week. 


. 
WEDNESDAY. 

THURSDAY. 

FEIDAT. 

Boll  Call. 
Devotional  Exer. 
Singins. 
Phonic  Analysis. 
Rest. 
Map  Drawing. 
Rest. 
Reading. 
Rest 
Grammar. 
Singing. 

Roll  Call. 
Devotional  Exer. 
Singing. 
Arithmetic. 
Rest. 
History. 
Rest. 
Oral  Instruction 
Rest. 
Language. 
Singing. 

Roll  Call. 
Devotional  Exer. 
Singing. 
School  Discipline. 
Rest. 
Grammar. 
Rest. 
Elem.  Nat.  Science 
Rest. 
Physic'l  Geog'phy. 
Singing. 

WEDNESDAY. 

THURSDAY. 

FRIDAY. 

Roll  Call. 
Singing. 
Teach  'g  Alphabet. 
Beat. 
Composition. 
Rest. 
Drawing. 
Rest. 
Geography. 
Miscellaneous. 

Roll  Call. 
Singing.    (Recit'n. 
How  to  conduct  a 
Rest.       (ography. 
Mathematical   Ge- 
Rest. 
Spelling. 
Rest. 
Elocution. 
Query  Box. 

Roll  Call. 

Singing. 
Theory  *  Practice. 
Rest. 
Physiology. 
Rest. 
Review. 
Rest. 
Closing  Exercises. 

WEDNESDAY. 

THURSDAY. 

FRIDAY. 

Singing. 

Discussion. 
Lecture. 

Singing. 
Discussion. 
Lecture. 

Singing. 
Discussion. 
Lecture. 

will  be  given  by  the  ringing  of  the  bell. 


406 


SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 


Another  Programme  of  Exercises  for  an 
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SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

The  strength,  or  it  may  be  the  weakness,  of  a 
teacher,  is  no  where  so  clearly  shown  as  in  the  gen- 
eral management  of  the  school. 

For  the  maintenance  of  healthy  discipline,  it  is  not 
necessary  that  there  shouhl  be  great  severity  in  the 
punisnment  of  offences. 

Firmness  is  the  first  requisite  to  school  management ; 
the  pupils  must  understand  that  the  teacher  has  ab- 
solute control ;  that  his  authority  is  supreme ;  and  this 
in  most  cases  is  sufficient  in  itself  to  hold  the  evil 
propensities  of  pupils  in  check. 

On  the  contrary,  a  lack  of  firmness  will  encourage 
the  spirit  of  revolt,  and  make  necessary  frequent  re- 
Borts  to  punishments  of  one  kind  or  another. 
,  School  government  should  be  administered  in  such 
a  way  that  it  shall  be  a  reign  of  justice.  The  sense  of 
justice  is  strong  even  in  the  case  of  vicious  children. 
Offences  will  occur  in  the  best  conducted  schools,  but 
the  teacher  must  discriminate  between  trivial,  aggra- 
vated and  serious  or  flagrant  offences. 

Children  know  that  disobedience  and  wrong-doing 
in  general  deserve  punishment ;  and  providing  that 


408  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

the  degree  of  punishment  does  not  exceed  its  just 
bounds,  no  feeling  of  resentment  will  be  cherished 
toward  him  who  inflicts  the  penalty. 

A  teacher  should  not,  generally,  make  a  rule  until 
there  is  &  necessity  for  it.  When  the  teacher,  through 
close  deliberation,  thinks  it  to  be  for  the  best  interest 
of  the  school  to  make  a  rule,  then,  and  not  until 
then,  should  he  make  it.  It  should  then  be  enforced, 
and  for  a  violation  of  the  rule,  a  penalty  should  be 
inflicted.  Children  soon  learn  to  feel  a  contempt  for 
a  teacher-who  does  not  insist  on  respectful  obedience; 
they  instinctively  admire  that  firmness  and  decision 
which  metes  out  to  offenders  their  deserved  punish- 
ment. Complete  success  in  school  management  at 
the  outset  is  not  to  be  expected  ;  only  by  slow  degrees 
can  dexterity  in  governing  be  attained.  Common 
sense  is  an  important  element  in  management.  A 
noble  Quaker  once  said,  ''  There  are  three  things  a 
man  needs  to  make  him  successful ;  first,  good  health; 
second,  religion  ;  and  third,  good  sense  ;  if  he  can- 
not have  but  one  of  these,  let  it  be  good  sense  ;  for 
God  can  give  him  grace,  and  God  can  give  him  re- 
ligion, but  no  man  can  give  him  common  sense." 

Administration. 

The  most  difficult  part  of  school  work  is  the  ad- 
ministration. How  often  have  I  been  asked,  "tell 
me  how  to  govern  my  school  ?"  The  subject  is,  in- 
deed, one  of  the  most  important  which  can  engage 
the  attention  of  teachers.  It  is  one  which  calls  for 
experience,  judgment  and  wisdom.  Every  pupil  has 
a  conscience,  which  decides  on  all  actions  contem- 


HOT  TOO  MUCH,  NOR  TOO  LITTLE.         409 

plated  or  begun — decides  whether  the  act  is  right  or 
wrong.  One  rule  only,  then,  need  be  made  :  "  Do 
nothing  which  your  conscience  tells  you  is  wrong.** 
This  covers  the  whole  ground  and  a  score  of  rules 
will  only  weaken  it.  Some  may  say  their  conscience 
is  depraved,  but  it  is  never  entirely  seared. 

Too  much  government  may  prove  as  injurious  as 
too  little  ;  both  may  prove  failures.  The  teacher 
should  govern  as  little  and  teach  as  much  as  possible. 
In  some  schools  there  is  more  of  government  than 
of  teaching.  The  pupils  should  understand  that  in 
no  instance  will  the  teacher  stop  the  recitation  to 
manage  a  school  or  discipline  a  pupil.  The  teacher, 
if  he  observes  that  a  pupil  is  disorderly  during  reci- 
tation, should  silently  mark  him,  and  attend  to  the 
offence  during  recess  or  at  some  convenient  opportu- 
nity. 

All  discipline  has  its  spring  in  the  character  of  the 
teacher.  It  depends  more  on  the  man  than  on  his 
means.  It  is  the  character  of  the  one  that  imparts 
efficacy  to  the  action  of  the  other. 

Character,  not   Reputation,  is   the  Source  of 
Success. 

Character  is  the  source  of  success  or  failure  in  all 
pursuits.  So  apparent  is  its  influence  in  schools  that 
one  who  had  many  opportunities  for  observing  has 
said  that,  "  a  teacher  has  more  need  to  watch  himself 
than  his  chi'.dren,  as  the  evils  found  in  a  school 
are  often  traceable  to  some  omission,  inconsiderate- 
ness,  hastiness  of  temper,  want  of  firmness,  or  ab- 
eence  of  principle  in  himself." 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


The  school  becomes  a  reflector  of  the  teacher,  and 
in  every  case  it  will  be  a  perfect  reflector.  A  teacher 
cannot  appear  what  he  is  not  in  the  presence  of  the 
school.  The  thing  is  vain.  Their  eyes  pierce  through 
every  disguise. 

He  must  be  what  he  seems,  and  muot  seem  what 
he  is. 

Teachers  must  Possess   High  and  Noble 
Qualities. 

Love,  honor,  truthfulness,  sincerity,  consistency, 
justice,  patience  and  judgment  must  be  elements  of 
a  teacher's  character.  Earnestness  and  cheerfulness 
are  also  elements.  Earnestness  has  great  influence 
over  children  ;  cheerfulness  is  sunshine. 

Sympathy  with  them  in  their  trials,  sports  and 
labors  is  an  element  of  power:  but  fear,  NEVEB. 

Is  there  not  a  lesson  prettily  expressed  in  the  fol- 
lowing : 

"  He  who  checks  a  child  with  terror, 
Stops  its  play,  and  stills  its  song, 

Not  alone  commits  an  error, 
But  a  great  and  moral  wrong. 

"  Give  it  play,  and  never  fear  it,  — 

Active  life  is  no  defect  ; 
Never,  never  break  its  spirit,  — 

Curb  it  only  to  direct. 

"  Would  you  stop  the  flowing  rivei, 
Thinking  it  would  cease  to  flow  f 

Onward  it  must  flow  forever,  — 
Better  teach  it  where  to  go." 


• '  SOFT,  GENTLE  AND  LO  W." 


Teacher  Should  Use  Low  Tones. 

Very  particularly  must  it  be  kept  in  view  by  the 
teacher  that  quietness  in  governing  is  most  naturally 
allied  with  good  discipline.  A  loud  voice  reiterating 
commands  in  an  authoritative  tone,  is  often  consid- 
ered favorable  to  discipline.  It  is  not  really  so.  A 
quiet  way  of  issuing  orders  is  favorable  to  quietness 
of  disposition  among  the  pupils.  It  conveys  a  double 
impression — that  obedience  is  expected,  and  that 
there  is  a  large  reserve  force  at  command,  if  the 
teacher  should  have  occasion  to  need  it  to  use.  One 
thing  deserving  careful  consideration  is  the  import- 
ance of  bringing  the  habit  of  obedience  very  early 
into  play. 

If  children  are  accustomed  from  their  very  earliest 
school  experience  to  move  together  in  accordance 
with  fixed  signals,  the  work  of  discipline  is  greatly 
simplified.  Simultaneous  movements — as  in  rising, 
taking  seats  again,  or  marching — always  contribute 
to  the  result  in  a  very  pleasing  way.  We  would  en- 
courage the  daily  drill  in  Disciplinary  Exercises  and 
Calisthenics,  as  well  calculated  to  enforce  prompt 
obedience. 

The  first  thing  that  a  child  should  learn  is  obedience. 
All  governments  and  all  peoples  have  regarded  filial 
disobedience  with  great  disfavor.  The  teacher  should 
supplement  the  parent's  work. 


412  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

School  Discipline. 

A. — OFFENCES  AGAINST  THE  SCHOOL  AND  MEANS  OF 
CORRECTING.' 

/.  Communication. 

1.  Suggestion,  advice,  admonition. 

2.  Reproof, — make  it  unpopular. 

3.  Restraint  of  personal  liberties. 

4.  Separate  Seatmates. 

5.  Printed  reports. 

II.  Loud  Study. 

1.  Suspend  exercises,  until  quiet. 

2.  Train  pupils  to  study  with  closed  lips. 

3.  Reproof. 

III.  Laughing. 

1.  Suspension  of  exercises. 

2.  Pupils  laugh  until  weary  of  it. 

3.  Reproof. 

IV.  Moving  Noisily. 

1.  Train  the  pupils  how  to  walk,  to  stand,  to  sit, 
and  to  move. 

2.  Always  admonish   them,  when  a  command  is 
violated. 

8.  Let  the  pupils  try  again,  until  they  do  it  quietly. 

4.  Slates  should  be'  covered.    Teachers  should  set 
the  example. 

V.  Questions  during  Recitation. 

1.  Prohibit  them. 

2.  Show  impropriety. 

8.  Refuse  to  notice  signals. 
4.  Reproof. 


CORRECTION  Of  COMMON  OFFENCES.    4JS 

VI.  Litter  on  the  Floor. 

1.  Encourage  neatness. 

2.  Require  the  floor  to  be  in  order. 

3.  Carefully  inspect  the  floor  in  the  presence  of 
the  pupil,  without  ",ny  remarks. 

VII.  Writing  Notes. 

1.  Give  them  all  the  work  they  can  do. 

2.  Read  them,  omitting  names. 

2.  Ask  for  the  writer.  9 

4.  Destroy  the  notes  without  reading  them. 


VIII. 

1.  Send  pupils  out. 

2.  Send  pupils  home. 

3.  Insist  upon  cleanliness. 

IX.  Disorder.' 

1.  A  place  for  every  thing,  and  every  thing  in  its 
place. 

2.  No  changing  of  position,  without  permission. 

3.  Always  to  be  held  accountable  for  the  care  of 
property. 

4.  Quiet  attention  when  addressed. 

REMARK.  —  Instruct,  train  and  drill  pupils  in  habits 
of  order,  manners  and  morals. 

B.  —  OFFENCES  AGAINST  PUPILS,  AND  MEANS  OF 
CORRECTING. 
I.   TaMlinq. 

1.  Shun  impropriety  —  leads  to  gossip  and  slander* 

2.  Refuse  to  notice  it. 
8.  Reprove. 

4.  Show  its  sinfulnesa 


414  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

II.  Quarrelling. 

1.  Persuade  of  sinfulness. 

2.  Oblige  to  play  alone, 
b.  Make  it  unpopular. 

///.  Untruthful  .:m 

(1.  Ignorance. 
1 2B3SS— • 
4.  Innate  tendency. 

(1.  Loss  of  reputation. 
2.  Loss  of  character. 
3.  Loss  of  conscience. 
4.  General  demoralization. 
Cultivate  honor. 


A  WORD  IN  CONCLUSION. 


The  facts  of  the  past,  the  claims  of  the  present,  and 
the  responsibilities  of  the  future  suggest  so  much 
which  might  be  said,  that  I  am  somewhat  perplexed 
in  deciding  upon  what  I  ought  to  say.  Nevertheless 
I  have  concluded  to  say  a  few  words  to  the  readers 
of  the  School-Room  Guide. 

To  Commissioners  and  Superintendents. 

Upon  you  rest,  to  a  great  extent,  the  success  of  the 
schools  and  the  advancement  of  the  educational  in- 
terests of  this  country. 

It  is  by  the  recommending  and  licensing  of  com. 
petent  and  efficient  teachers  that  you  are  the  most 
successful  in  promoting  the  interests  of  your  charge. 
Let  the  teachers  recommended  by  you  be  selected 
more  with  reference  to  social  culture,  exalted  moral 
character,  the  development  of  true  manhood  and 
womanhood,  than  to  either  scholarship  or  talent,-  This 
you  can  do  by  selecting  and  recommending  only  such 
persons  as  shall  illustrate  in  their  lives  the  moral  les- 
sons which  should  be  set  as  an  example  in  schools. 

You  stand  pledged  to  further  the  interests,  not  only 
of  literature  and  science,  but  of  the  sublimest  type 
of  morality. 


*1B  A  WORD  IS  CONCLUSION. 

If  you  would  redeem  this  pledge  you  will  not  licecs* 
is  a  teacher  any  one  who  violates  the  law  of  morat 
ourity,  who  gives  to  social  dissipation  the  hours  that 
belong  to  sleep,  or  who  indulges  in  any  practice  zi 
vice.  A  sacred  trust  is  committed  to  you,  which,  if 
faithfully  and  wisely  discharged,  shall  make  vonr 
own  day  beautiful,  and  scatter  blessings  along  uie 
pathway  of  coming  years. 

Conclusions  drawn  from  Experience. 

An  experience  of  twenty-five  years  in  the  field  of 
education  has  secured  principles  and  conclusions 
wnich  may  be  considered  not  only  general  state- 
ments, but  facts.  One  fundamental  fact  thus  gained 
is,  that  the  school  should  be  an  appendage  of  ibe 
family,  fitted  to  train  the  ignorant  and  -weak  by  self- 
sacrificing  labor  and  love,  and  to  bestow  the  most  atten. 
tion  on  'he  weakest,  the  most  unaeveloped  ana  tuo 
most  sinful.  It  is  exactly  the  opposite  course  to  which 
teachers  are  most  tempted. 

The  bright,  the  good,  the  industrious,  are  those 
whom  it  is  most  agreeable  to  teach,  who  win  most 
affection,  and  who  promote  the  reputation  01  a 
teacher,  and  of  a  school  or  a  college. 

To  follow  this  principle,  then,  demands  more  clear 
views  of  duty  and  more  self-denying  benevolence 
than  ordinarily  abound. 

Another  general  principle  obtained  by  experience 
Is,  that  both  quickness  of  perception  and  retentive- 
ness  of  memory  depend  very  greatly  on  the  degree  of 
interest  excited. 

By  this  same  general  principle  of  Quickening  intet- 


LESSONS  TA  UGffT  BY  EXPERIENCE.     417 

•ect  by  exciting  interest,  we  have  learned  the  impor- 
tance of  educating  young  persons  with  some  practical 
aim,  by  which,  in  case  of  poverty,  they  may  support 
themselves. 

Another  very  interesting  fact  revealed  by  personal 
experience  is,  that  there  is  no  knowledge  so  thorough 
and  permanent  as  that  gained  in  teaching  olhers. 

Repeatedly  has  it  been  observed  that  a  lesson  or  a 
problem  supposed  to  be  comprehended  wasir»perfect» 
and  corrected  only  in  attempts  to  aid  others  in  under- 
standing it.  In  no  other  profession  is  the  sacred 
promise,  "  Give  and  it  shall  be  given  unto  you,"  so 
fully  realized  as  in  that  of  a  teacher. 

Another  very  important  principle  in  acquiring 
knowledge  is  to  take  but  few  branches  at  one  time 
and  especially  to  have  these  associated  in  their 
character,  so  that  each  is  an  assistance  in  understand- 
ing and  remembering  the  others. 

There  is  a  great  loss  of  time  and  labor  in  the  com- 
mon method  of  pursuing  four  or  five  disconnected 
branches  of  study. 

The  mind  is  distracted  by  the  variety  and  feels  a 
feeble  and  divided  interest  in  all. 

In  many  instances,  this  method  of  cramming  the 
mind  with  uninteresting  and  disconnected  details 
serves  to  debilitate  rather  than  to  promote  mental 
power.  The  memory  is  the  faculty  chiefly  cultivated, 
and  this  at  the  expense  of  the  others. 

To  Teachers. 

I  trust  that  1  shall  not  be  considered  as  transcend- 
ing the  proper  limit  of  remark,  if  I  should  submit  to- 


418  A  WORD  IN  CONCLUSION. 

your  consideration  some  thoughts  relating  to  the 
teacher's  work. 

In  government,  be  gentle  yet  firm  ;  not  anxious  to 
govern  in  those  things  which  are  innocent  and 
harmless,  but  to  restrain  practices  which  are  unques- 
tionably immoral  by  the  exercise  of  all  the  authority 
with  which  you  are  invested. 

In  order  that  you  may  worthily  discharge  the  duties 
which  thus  confront  you  at  the  threshold  of  your 
field  of  labor,  it  is  of  the  first  importance  that  your 
own  habits  of  thought  and  life  be  wholly  correct. 

No  one  is  fit  to  govern  others  until  he  has  learned 
to  govern  himself.  Self-government  and  self-restraint 
are  not  possible  without  intelligence  and  virtue. 

The  task  of  the  teacher  is  one  of  great  responsi- 
bility and  labor. 

It  is  very  much  easier  for  a  general  to  command  an 
army  than  for  a  teacher  to  govern  a  school ;  for  a 
general  has  to  deal  with  and  consider  only  immediate 
results,  besides  being  invested  with  absolute  power, 
while  the  teacher  has  to  consider  chiefly  results  to  be 
attained  in  the  future,  and  he  is  forbidden  by  consid- 
eration of  his  own  and  the  pupil's  welfare  to  exercise 
other  than  qualified  power. 

Then  the  military  commander  trains  his  soldiers  to 
wield  only  weapons  against  material  fortifications, 
while  the  teacher  is  to  discipline  those  under  his  or 
her  care  and  control,  in  the  skilful  use  of  the  mental 
and  moral  powers,  and  prepare  them  to  contend  suc- 
cessfully against  superstition,  begotten  of  ignorance, 
against  habits  of  thought  and  action  which  reach 


THE  FINAL  CA  USE.  419 

their  root  far  back  in  the  centuries  and  "  against 
spiritual  wickedness  in  high  places."  Hence  great 
statesmen  and  victorious  generals  are  of  little  value 
in  any  country  without  efficient  teachers. 

To  our  public  schools  we  must  look  for  those  who 
will  be  called  upon  to  manage  the  affairs  of  families, 
to  transact  the  business  of  town  and  of  state,  to  fill 
the  vacated  bench  of  justice,  to  sit  in  the  halls  of 
legislation,  and  to  direct  and  control  the  church  of 
God. 

Upon  the  character  of  our  schools  and  teachers, 
therefore,  depends  the  weal  or  woe  of  unborn  mil- 
lions, the  prosperity  or  downfall  of  our  boasted  in- 
stitutions. 

As  the  concluding  thought,  teachers  and  friends, 
may  we  all  bear  in  mind  that  our  life  in  this  world  is 
but  the  preparatory  department  in  the  School  of  God. 

Let  us  be  so  attentive  to  the  lessons  given  us  by  the 
Great  Teacher,  that  when  the  day  of  examination  with 
us  severally  shall  come,  we  may  hear  the  glad  wel- 
come "well  done,"  and  at  last  gather  beyond  the 
River,  under  the  cloudless  sky,  undimmed  by  the 
shade  of  night,  there  to  renew  our  search  for  knowl- 
edge and  our  labors  of  love,  with  immortal  faculties, 
which  are  least  weary  when  most  employed. 


APPENDIX. 


CLIMATE. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

The  investigation  of  Climate  and  its  modifications 
is  the  province  of  the  student.  It  will  be  at  once 
admitted  that  an  acquaintance  with  the  agencies  is 
of  paramount  importance  to  every  person. 

The  great  agents  are  the  air,  rain,  frosts,  springs, 
brooks,  rivers,  glaciers,  icebergs,  mountains,  and 
the  sea. 

It  is  Climate,  and  Climate  alone,  that  determines 
mainly  the  character  of  all  vegetable  and  animal 
life. 

Climatic  agents  are  not  only  now  the  most  impor- 
tant and  influential,  but  they  have  been  so  during 
all  past  geological  ages.  To  account  for  all  of  the 
extraordinary  changes  of  Climate  would  require 
many  volumes.  There  is  one  point  to  which  I  wish 
particularly  to  direct  attention,  viz.,  that  I  have 
studiously  avoided  introducing  theories  of  a  hypyo- 
thetical  nature. 


423  APPENDIX:  CLIMATE. 

The  conclusions  are  in  every  case  derived  either 
from  facts  or  from  recognized  principles. 

The  student  should  never  rest  until  he  gets  at  the 
reasons  for  what  he  sees  about  him.  He  should 
know  something  about  the  air  he  breathes,  and  the 
earth  he  lives  upon,  and  about  the  relations  between 
them.  It  is  this  great  book  of  Nature,  wherein  each 
of  us,  young  and  old,  may  read,  and  go  on  reading 
all  through  life,  without  exhausting  even  a  small 
part  of  what  it  has  to  teach  us — it  is  this  great  book — 
Air,  Earth,  and  Sea  —  which  I  would  have  you 
study. 


CLIMATE. 


ELEMENTS. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  climate? 

"Wlien  we  speak  of  the  heat  or  cold  of  the  air,  we 
Include  an  element  of  climate. 

2.  Where  does  the  heat  come  from? 
It  comes  from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

8.  When  do  the  sunbeams  give  the  most  heat  ? 
The  sunbeams  give  the  most  heat  when  they  fall 
the  most  directly  upon  any  part  of  the  earth. 

4.  When  do  the  sunbeams  give  the  least  heat? 
The  sunbeams  give  the  least  heat  when  they  fall 

the  most  obliquely. 

5.  When  we  speak  of  the  heat  or  cold  of  the  air, 
what  word  is  generally  used? 

The  word  temperature  is  used. 


TEMPERATURE. 


6.  When  the  air  is  very  hot,  what  may  be  said  of 
the  temperature  ? 

It  is  said  to  be  very  high. 

7.  When  the  air  is  very  cold,  what  may  be  said  of 
the  temperature  ? 

It  is  said  to  be,  very  low. 

8.  In  our  country,  which  part  of  the  day  is  wann- 
est —  morning,  noon,  or  evening  1 

It  is  warmest  at  noon. 

9.  "Why  is  it  warmer  at  noon  than  in  the  morning 
or  evening  ? 

In  the  morning  and  the  evening  the  rays  of  the  sun 
fall  in  a  slanting  direction,  and  we  receive  compara- 
tively few  of  the  rays,  because  they  are  spread  over 
a  great  surface. 

At  noon,  when  the  sun  is  more  or  less  directly 
upon  us,  then  we  receive  more  of  them  because  they 
fall  upon  a  comparatively  small  space. 

Rays  falling  directly  from  overhead  are  said  to  be 
vertical;  those  falling  in  a  slanting  direction  are  said 
to  be  oblique. 

NOTE.  —  A  diagram  put  on  the  black-board  will 
bring  the  matter  home  to  the  pupil's  comprehension. 
Draw  a  horizontal  upward  curve;  upon  this  draw 
two  parallel  vertical  lines,  two  parallel  oblique  lines, 
and  two  parallel  horizontal  lines,  striking  at  the  same 
arc.  The  vertical  sheaf  of  rays,  striking  the  earth 
at  noon,  falls  upon  a  small  surface.  In  the  middle 
of  the  forenoon  or  afternoon,  the  rays,  falling  ob- 
liqely,  are  spread  over  a  greater  surface.  At  sunrise 
or  sunset  no  part  of  the  sheaf-  touches  the  earth's 
surface  except  its  lower  side,  and  most  of  the  rays 
are  lost  in  the  atmosphere  beyond.  Tell  the  pupils 


434  APPENDIX:  CLIMATE. 

that  the  sun  always  shines  vertically,  or  nearly  so, 
-on  the  equator,  and  on  a  considerable  belt  beyond 
the  equator  on  either  side.  Now,  just  as  the  sun- 
beams fall  more  directly  at  noon  than  in  the  morn- 
ing or  evening,  so  they  fall  more  directly  during  the 
summer  season  than  during  the  winter  season. 

10.  In  our  part  ot"   the  world   is  the    sun  ever 
•directly  overhead? 

In  our  country  the  sun  centre  is  never  directly 
overhead,  and  his  rays  fall  upon  us  in  the  most 
nearly  vertical  direction  on  the  longest  summer  day. 

11.  When  you  speak  of  climate,  then,  what  one 
element  does  it  include? 

It  includes  temperature — that  is,  the  heat  or  cold. 

First  Important  Fact. — Temperature  —  that 
is,  the  heat  or  cold  of  a  place— is  one 
elemeiit  of  climate. 


12.  Does  climate  include  any  other  element? 

It  does;  in  some  countries  immense  quantities  of 
rain  fall;  in  others  none,  or  next  to  none,  falls  there. 
In  the  rainless  districts  it  would  be  a  dry  climate ; 
where  they  have  immense  quantities  it  would  be  a 
wet  or  damp  climate. 

13.  When  we  speak  of  a  wet  or  dry  climate,  what 
word  is  generally  used? 

The  word  moisture  is  used. 

14.  When  you  speak  of  climate,  .then,  what  other 
element  does  it  include?    ¥ 

It  includes  moisture — that  is,  whether  it  is  wet  or 
dry. 


THE  THREE  ELEMENTS,  425 

Second  Important  Fact. — Moisture,  or  hu- 
midity—that is  whether  it  is  wet  or  dry 
— is  another  element  of  climate. 


15.  What  is  the  first  element  in  climate? 

16.  What  is  the  second  element  in  climate? 

17.  Does  climate  include  any  other  element? 

It  does;  in  some  places  they  have  a  windy  climate 
or  a  stormy  climate. 

18.  When  you  speak  of  climate,  then,  what  other 
element  does  it  include? 

It  includes  the  wind — we  will  call  it  the  prevailing 
winds. 

Third  Important  Fact.— T  lie  prevailing 
winds  form  an  element  of  climate. 


19.  What  are  the  three  elements  of  climate? 
The  three  elements  of  climate  are  temperature, 

moisture,    or   humidity,    and    prevailing 
winds. 

20.  A  climate  that  is  neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold, 
what  may  it  be  called? 

A  climate  that  is  neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold  is 
called  temperate. 

21.  When  it  is  very  hot  or  very  cold,   what  is  the 
climate  said  to  be? 

It  is  said  to  be  extreme. 

22.  What  does  an  extreme  climate  mean? 
One  that  is  either  too  hot  or  too  cold. 

23.  Of  a  climate  that  is  neither  too  wet  nor  too 


426  APPENDIX:  CLIMATE. 

stormy,  neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold,  what  may  be 
said? 

A  climate  that  is  in  every  way  fine  and  agreeable 
is  called  genial  or  salubrious. 

REVIEW. 

How  many  elements  are  included  in  climate? 
Three  elements  are  included. 

1.  Temperature — that  is,  the  heat  or  cold. 

2.  Humidity,  or  the  state  of  being  wet  or  dry. 

3.  The  prevailing  winds. 

(a).  A  temperate  climate  means  one  that  is  neither 
too  hot  nor  too  cold. 

(6).  An  extreme  climate  means  one  that  is  either  too 
hot  or  too  cold. 

(c).  A  genial  or  salubrious  climate  means  one  that 
is  in  every  way  fine  or  agreeable,  favorable  to  health. 

NOTE. — The  above  facts  under  the  Review  should 
be  written  on  the  board,  and  the  pupils  should  be  re- 
quired to  copy  and  commit  them  to  memory. 


CAUSES  AND  MODIFICATIONS. 

1.  How  can  we  tell  what  variety  of  climate  any 
country  has  ?  What  must  we  know  before  we  can 
tell? 

NOTE. — Before  this  division  of  the  subject  is  taken 
up,  a  lesson  should  be  given  on  the  shape  or  form  of 
the  earth,  lines  upon  the  earth's  surface,  etc. 

When  we  concluded  our  lesson  upon  the  lines  on 
the  earth's  surface,  we  stated  that  the  earth,  in  its 
motion,  like  a  wheel,  revolves  around  an  imaginary 
line  called  its  axis. 


LATITUDE.  427 


The  most  northern  point  of  the  earth's  surface  is 
called  the  North  Pole,  and  the  most  southern  point 
the  South  Pole. 

There  is  a  line  called  the  equator,  drawn  at  an 
equal  distance  from  each  pole,  and  dividing  the 
earth-surface  into  equal  parts. 

The  countries  where  the  sun  shines  directly  over- 
head, or  perpendicularly,  are  those  that  are  near  this 
line — the  Equator — (use  a  globe  if  you  have  one,  or 
at  least  a  map;  place  a  diagram  on  the  board,  illus- 
trate fully). 

Here,  23^°  north  of  the  equator,  is  another  line, 
called  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  23£°  south  of  the 
equator  is  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

Any  country  lying  anywhere  between  the  tropica 
is  called  intertropical.  And  since  these  countries 
have  the  sun  directly  overhead  at  certain  seasons, 
and  nearly  so  at  all  other  seasons,  they  will  have  a 
hot  climate.  And  as  we  go  nearer  to  the  poles  it  be- 
comes colder,  till  at  last,  at  the  polar  regions,  we 
would  find  only  ice  and  snow.  We  learn  from  these 
facts  that  the  heat  throughout  the  year  is  greatest  at 
or  near  the  equator,  and  diminishes  gradually  to- 
ward the  poles.  Thus  we  see  that  the  climate  of  a 
place  depends  upon  the  latitude,  of  the  place.  The 
latitude  of  a  place  is,  therefore,  of  the  first  import- 
ance in  determining  its  temperature,  since  a  decrease 
of  heat  takes  place  with  an  increase  of  latitude  as 
we  travel,  at  the  same  level  above  the  sea,  from  the 
equator  toward  the  poles. 

So  it  will  be  seen  that  temperature  is  the  fundu 


428  APPENDIX:  CLIMATE. 

mental  clement  iii   climate,    and  influences  all  the 
others. 

CAUSE. 

At  the  equator,  and  within  the  tropics,  the  great- 
est heat  is  experienced,  because  the  sun  is  always 
vertical  to  some  place  within  those  limits,  and  the 
solar  action  is  more  intense  in  proportion  as  the  rays 
are  vertical  to  the  earth. 

As  we  recede  from  the  equator  they  fail  more  ob- 
liquely; and,  because  fewer  of  them  arc  spread  over 
a  larger  space,  they  are  less  powerful,  and  conse- 
quently have  less  influence  on  temperature. 

It  has  been  calculated  that,  out  of  10,000  rays  fall- 
ing upon  the  earth  atmosphere,  8,123  arrive  at  a 
given  point  if  they  fall  vertically ;  7,024,  if  the  angle 
of  direction  is  50°;  2,821,  if  it  is  7°;  and  only  5  if 
the  direction  is  horizontal. 

As  it  will  be  seen,  the  amount  of  heat  produced 
by  the  sun  upon  the  earth's  surface  is  greatest  near 
the  equator,  and  diminishes  gradually  toward  the 
poles,  and  that  these  causes  are  referable,  first,  to 
the  spherical  form  of  the  earth,  and  the  angle  at 
which  the  sun's  rays  impinge  upon  the  surface. 

In  the  equatorial  regions  they  are  vertical  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  there  produce  maximum 
effect ;  but,  on  account  of  the  curved  outline  of  the 
globe,  they  fall  more  and  more  obliquely  with 
increasing  latitude,  and  the  intensity  of  action 
diminishes  proportionally.  At  the  poles  they  are 
tangent  to  the  surface,  and  their  effect  is  zero. 


ALTITUDE.  429 


From  these  facts  we  may  deduce  the  following 
GENERAL  LAW. 

The  climate  of  a  place  depends  principally  on  its 
latitude. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

When  we  ascend  mountains,  the  air  becomes  cool, 
cooler,  cold,  colder,  till  finally  we  find  ourselves 
amid  snows  that  last  all  the  year  around. 

We  may  travel  several  hundred  miles  from  the 
equator  toward  the  poles,  along  the  level  surface  of 
the  earth,  before  we  become  sensible  of  a  diminished 
temperature;  but,  when  we  ascend  the  mountains 
between  the  tropics,  when  we  begin  to  increase  our 
elevation,  a  rapid  change  of  temperature  is  experi- 
enced, and  those  places  that  are  elevated  will  be 
colder  than  those  at  the  level  of  the  sea. 

On  an  average,  an  increase  of  330  feet  in  altitude 
diminishes  the  temperature  1°  Fahr. ;  hence,  the  rate 
of  diminution  is  about  3°  to  1000  feet. 

In  large  plateaus,  however,  the  effect  of  altitude 
seems  to  be,  in  some  measure,  intensified  by  the 
great  extent  of  absorbing  and  radiating  surface 
uplifted  into  the  atmosphere.  In  general  they  are 
considerably  warmer  than  the  isolated  summits  of 
mountains  of  the  same  altitude. 

From  this  effect  of  elevation  upon  temperature,  .it 
is  obvious  that  the  mountain  regions  of  the  torrid 
zone  have  great  varieties  of  climate. 

In  this  region  we  may  find  vines  at  the  base  of  the 
mountain.  The  region  of  vines  rises  from  the 


430  APPENDIX:  CLIMATE. 

level  of  the  sea  to  a  certain  height;  in  this  zone  of 
vegetation  may  be  found  the  date-tree,  the  sugar- 
cane, the  fig,  and  the  olive;  next  come  the  hardy 
species  of  trees,  as  the  oak,  the  laurel ;  higher,  the 
birch,  the  pine,  and  the  firs;  higher  still  may  be 
found  the  grasses;  and,  beyond,  a  few  plants  and 
lichens;  and,  still  beyond,  the  vegetation  ceases 
entirely,  and  we  have  reached  the  line  of  perpetual 
snow. 

NOTE. — Illustrate  the  zones  of  vegetation  by  a 
diagram  at  the  board,  using  colored  chalk. 

From  these  facts  we  gather  that  the  temperature 
of  a  place  depends  not  on  its  latitude  alone,  but  on 
its  elevation,  or,  as  it  is  called,  its  altitude. 

CAUSE. 

The  lower  and  denser  strata  of  the  atmosphere 
absorb  the  greatest  amount  of  the  sun's  heat,  and 
are  necessarily  the  warmest;  the  atmosphere  is  not 
much  heated  by  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  but 
receives  heat  mainly  by  radiation  from  the  earth 
surface. 

First  Modification.— The  altitude  of  a  place 
modifies  the  climate. 


Mountains  also  modify  the  climate  of  large  areas  of 
lower  lands  in  their  vicinity.  Their  elevation  inter- 
cepts the  moist  currents  approaching  from  the  oceans, 
and  their  cold  summits  condense  the  moisture,  caus- 
ing it  to  be  precipitated. 

Consequently,  the  winds,  on  leaving  the  mountains 


INFLUENCE  OF  WINDS.  431 

for  the  interior,  arc  dry,  and  give  the  characteristics 
of  dryncss  to  the  climate  of  the  interior  areas.  This 
modification  is  well  illustrated  in  our  own  country 
by  the  climate  of  our  Western  Plains,  which  are 
influenced  in  their  climatic  conditions  by  the  high, 
cold  wall  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  valleys  west  of  this  range  have  abundant  rain- 
fall, and,  consequently,  rich  fertility,  while  those  to 
the  east  have  almost  perpetual  drouth,  and  conse- 
quent sterility. 

Therefore,  another  modification  of  climate  is  the 
proximity  of  mountain  ranges. 

Second  Modification.  —  The  proximity  of 
mountain  ranges  modifies  the  climate. 


Heat  causes  winds.  Winds  are  motions  of  parts 
of  the  atmosphere;  warmer  portions  expand,  become 
lighter,  rise,  and  their  places  are  filled  by  cold  air. 

Hence,  tropical  heat  causes  an  ascending  warm 
current  of  air  at  the  equator.  The  heavy  cold  air 
from  the  poles,  flowing  toward  the  equator,  causes 
Trade  Winds  on  each  side  of  the  equator. 

Ascending  air  cools,  contracts,  and  descends  to 
the  surface  beyoud  the  tropics,  meets  the  polar  cur- 
rents, and  forms  the  return  currents. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  causes  the  polar  and  re- 
turn currents  to  be  turned  from  their  northern  or 
southern  direction,  and  they  take  a  northeastern  or 
southwestern  course. 

The  character  of  the  wind  depends  upon  the  re- 
gion whence  it  comes.  Winds  from  the  equatorial 


432  APPENDIX:    CLIMATE. 

regions  carry  into  the  middle  latitudes  some  portion 
of  the  heat  of  the  tropical  regions;  while  polar  winds 
bring  the  low  temperature  of  the  latitudes  whence 
they  come. 

If  there  is  nothing  to  break  the  force  of  the  icy 
winds  coming  from  the  arctic  region,  we  may  ex- 
pect that  country  to  be  cold  even  if  it  is  pretty  far 
south;  on  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  nothing  to  break 
the  force  of  the  hot  winds  cominec  from  the  torrid  re- 
gion, we  may  expect  that  country  to  be  warm,  even 
if  is  pretty  far  north. 

In  the  United  States  the  winds  from  the  north  are 
usually  noted  for  their  coolness,  a  property  they  de- 
rive from  the  frozen  regions  of  Hudson  and  Baffin's 
Bay,  while  those  from  the  south,  coming  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  impart  a  mildness  throughout  the 
whole  country. 

The  comparatively  mild  climate  of  the  British  Isles 
is  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  main  currents  of  air 
which  are  warmed  by  sweeping  over  the  Gulf  Stream. 

In  the  same  latitude  the  shores  of  Greenland  and 
Labrador  are  washed  by  the  icy  waters  of  the  arctic 
currents  and  swept  by  the  polar  winds. 

The  one  region  has  a  mild  climate,  and  is  occti- 
pied  by  the  most  enlightened  nations  of  the  world; 
the  other  is  a  frozen  waste,  sparsely  inhabited  by 
degraded  savages  and  European  traders. 

We  gather  from  these  facts  that  the  climate  of  a 
place  depends  not  alone  on  its  latitude,  altitude,  or 
proximity  to  mountain  ranges,  but  on  the  character 
of  the  winds. 


INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEAN.         43^ 

Third  Modification. — The  prevailing  winds 
at  a  given  place  modify  the  climate. 


Oceanic  climate  is  characterized  by  uniformity. 
Water  has  a  great  capacity  for  absorbing  heat,  and 
but  feeble  conducting  power;  hence,  the  ocean 
grows  warm  slowly  under  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and 
never  attains  a  high  temperature.  It  'also  radiates 
heat  slowly,  and  as  fast  as  the  surface-particles  be- 
come cool,  they  sink  and  are  replaced  by  warmer 
ones  from  beneath;  hence  the  cooling  process  is  as 
gradual  as  the  heating,  and  neither  produces  ex- 
tremes of  temperature. 

The  ocean  retains  the.  heat  longer  than  the  land. 
In  the  summer  the  land  is  warmer  than  the  sea,  and 
in  the  winter  the  laud  is  cooler  than  the  sea. 

NOTE. — This  is  a  general  statement,  and  does  not 
refer  to  daily  variation  of  temperature. 

The  air  from  the  ocean  moderates  the  heat  of 
summer  and  cold  of  winter.  So  the  coasts  have  a 
more  equable  temperature  than  the  interior. 

The  land  absorbs  the  solar  beat  rapidly,  and  the 
surface  soon  attains  a  high  temperature.  Especially 
is  this  the  case  when  the  soil  is  imperfectly  covered 
with  vegetation,  as  in  treeless  plains  or  deserts. 

But,  when  the  sun  is  withdrawn,  heat  radiates 
with  rapidity,  and  a  comparatively  low  temperature 
is  soon  reached.  It  is  seen  that  the  ocean  preserves 
a  much  more  uniform  temperature  than  the  land, 
hence  islands  and  maritime  districts  have  milder 


434  APPENDIX:    CLIMATE. 

climates  than  inland  regions  under  the  same  parallels 
of  latitude.  London,  though  situated  in  a  higher 
latitude,  enjoys  a  milder  climate  than  Paris  The 
winters  and  summers  of  Ireland  are  much  more  tem- 
perate than  those  of  any  other  country  in  the  same 
latitude. 

SEA-BREEZE. 

Let  us  take  an  example  in  Nature,  and  see  what 
passes  on  an  island  alone  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean. 
Let  us  remember  that  the  land  is  heated  more  readily 
than  the  sea.  In  proportion  as  the  sun  rises  above 
the  horizon,  the  island  becomes  warmer  than  the 
neighboring  sea. 

Their  respective  atmospheres  participate  in  these 
unequal  temperatures ;  the  fresh  air  of  the  sea  rushes 
from  all  directions  under  the  form  of  a  sea-breeze, 
which  makes  itself  felt  along  the  whole  coast,  and 
the  warmer  and  lighter  air  of  the  island  will  ascend 
into  the  atmosphere. 

During  the  night  it  is  the  reverse.  The  island 
loses  heat  by  radiation,  and  cools  quicker  than  the 
sea. 

Its  atmosphere,  having  become  heavier,  runs  into 
that  of  the  sea,  under  the  form  of  land-breeze,  and 
this  interchange  lasts  until  the  temperature,  and  con- 
sequently the  density,  of  the  two  atmospheres  has 
again  become  the  same. 

This  is  the  phenomenon  observed  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Georgia,  Florida,  and  almost  daily  on  nearly 
all  the  seaboards. 


OCEAN  CURRENTS.  435 

What  takes  place  here  on  a  small  scale  in  the  space 
of  a  day,  passes  on  a  great  scale  between  the  entire 
•continent  and  the  ocean  from  one  season  -to  another. 
A  moment's  reflection  will  enable  us  to  see  that  these 
differences  of  temperature,  setting  the  whole  atmos- 
phere in  motion,  modify  the  climate  of  a  place. 

So  it  is  seen  that  the  water  of  the  sea  keeps  an 
island  warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer. 

In  the  centre  of  a  continent  the  wind  in  winter 
blows  over  immense  fields  of  snow  or  ice,  and  keeps 
the  air  cold;  and  in  summer  it  blows  across  the 
heated  land,  and  the  air  must  be  very  warm;  the 
countries  in  the  centre  of  a  continent  have  an  ex 
treme  climate;  hence  the  nearness  to,  or  remoteness 
of  a  place  from  the  ocean,  modifies  the  climate. 

Fourth  Modification. —  The  proximity  of  a 
place  to,  or  its  distance  from,  the  ocean 
modifies  its  climate. 


There  are  rivers  in  the  ocean  called  ocean-currents. 
They  consist  of  vast  oceanic  streams  which  keep  up 
a  perpetual  circulation  of  the  waters.  Some  of  them 
have  been  traced  many  thousand  miles.  All  the 
rivers  in  the  world  are  insignificant  when  compared 
with  some  of  these  currents. 

They  move  on  steadily  through  water  compara- 
tively at  rest,  and  are  often  different  from  the  latter 
in  color  and  temperature.  Some  are  hundreds  of 
miles  broad,  thousands  of  feet  deep,  and  have  a 
course  embracing  the  larger  part  of  the  ocean  in 
which  they  move. 


436  APPENDIX:    CLIMATE. 

Currents  exist  not  only  at  the  surface,  but  in  deep 
waters,  where  their  course  is  frequently  in  a  differ- 
ent direction  from,  sometimes  even  opposite  to  that 
of  the  surface-currents. 

The  direction  and  velocity  of  currents  are  modi- 
fled:  1.  By  the  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis; 
2.  By  the  constant  winds  of  the  Torrid  Zone;  3. 
By  being  turned  aside  by  the  shores. 

CAUSES  OF  CURRENTS. 

The  expansion  and  contraction  of  water  by  heat 
and  cold  are,  perhaps,  the  principal  causes  to  which 
currents  are  due.  Heat  causes  water  to  become 
warm;  warm  water  is  lighter  than  cold,  and  when 
certain  portions  become  heated,  they  rise  by  reason 
of  their  buoyancy,  and  are  replaced  by  surrounding 
colder  and  heavier  water;  the  warmer  and  lighter 
water  flows  toward  the  poles,  an  equal  quantity  of 
the  cold  and  heavier  water  flowing  at  the  same  time 
toward  the  equator.  The  ocean-currents  assist  to 
cool  the  tropical  and  to  warm  the  polar  regions. 

Evaporation  by  solar  heat  causes  large  quantities 
of  water  to  pass  off  in  vapor;  and  it  is  this  excessive 
evaporation  within  the  tropics  which  tends  to  lower 
the  level  of  the  water  there. 

The  revolution  of  the  earth  round  its  axis  is  still 
another  powerful  cause  in  producing  currents,  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  equatorial  regions,  which  have 
commonly  a  westerly  direction. 

The  winds  of  tropical  climates,  which  blow  con- 
tinuously or  during  long  periods  in  one  direction, 
also  lend  their  influence  in  affecting  the  currents. 


THE  GULF  STREAM.  437 


The  effect  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  tides  in  producing 
an  alternate  flowing  of  currents  in  opposite  directions 
is  perceived  in  channels  between  islands,  or  between 
islands  and  the  mainland. 

Thus,  in  the  channel  which  connects  Long  Island 
Sound  with  the  harbor  of  New  York,  known  as  the 
East  River,  strong  currents  alternately  prevail  in 
opposite  directions,  as  the  tide  ebbs  or  flows. 

The  Gulf  Steam,  which  first  becomes  apparent 
near  the  northeast  coast  of  Cuba, has  a  great  influence 
on  climate.  The  Gulf  Stream,  as  it  issues  from  the 
straits  of  Florida,  is  of  dark  indigo-blue ;  so  strongly 
contrasting  with  the  greenish  color  of  the  sea  that 
the  line  of  contact  is  distinctly  traceable  by  the  eye. 
Near  its  origin  this  remarkable  current  has  a  breadth 
of  32  miles  and  a  depth  of  more  than  2,000  feet;  off 
Cape  Hatteras  the  breadth  is  at  least  75  miles,  and 
the  depth  more  than  700  feet. 

The  temperature  at  its  or'gin  is  about  80°  Fahr. ; 
on  an  average  it  is  from  20°  to  30°  warmer  than  the 
adjacent  waters. 

The  comparatively  high  temperature  of  this  great 
steam  modifies  the  climate  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
North  America;  also  as  it  sweeps  across  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  in  its  northeast  course  to  the  British  Isles  and 
Norway,  it  modifies  the  climate  of  those  countries. 
It  will  be  seen,  by  a  study  of  the  ocean-currents,  that 
the  polar  currents  bring  cold  to  the  eastern  shores  of 
the  continents,  and  the  return  currents  bring  heat  to 
the  western  shores,  and  that  they  produce  contrasts 
in  temperature  in  the  same  latitude  on  opposite 


438  APPENDIX:  CLIMATE. 

shores  of  continents.  These  currents  modify  the 
climate;  we  gather  from  these  facts  that  ocean-cur- 
rents modify  the  climate  of  a  country. 

Fifth   Modification. — Ocean-currents   mod- 
ify the  climate  of  a  place. 


The  annual  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  a  place 
considerably  affects  its  climate,  by  imparting  a 
greater  or  less  degree  of  humidity  or  dampness  to 
the  atmosphere.  In  general  more  rain  falls  on  islands 
and  on  sea  coasts  than  in  inland  districts;  among 
mountains  than  in  level  regions;  and  within  the 
tropics  than  in  the  other  zones. 

CAUSE  OP  RAINS. 

Heat  and  winds  produce  rains.  Heat  causes  evap- 
oration; the  vapors  rise  in  the  air;  air  at  a  given 
temperature  has  a  certain  capacity  for  moisture; 
when  this  limit  is  reached  the  air  is  said  to  be  satua- 
ted  with  humidity,  and  the  least  lowering  of  the 
temperature  causes  a  condensation  of  moisture  in 
the  form  of  dew,  fog,  clouds,  or  rain ;  but,  if  the 
temperature  is  raised,  the  capacity  for  vapor  being 
increased,  absorption  recommences. 

As  long  as  the  amount  of  vapor  present  in  the  air 
is  much  less  than  is  required  for  satuation,  evapora- 
tion goes  on  rapidly,  and  the  air  continues  to  absorb 
the  rising  vapors.  It  is,  therefore,  called  dry  air. 
When  the  air  is  nearly  satuated  evaporation  proceeds 
but  very  slowly;  when  saturation  is  reached  evap- 
oration ceases,  and  the  air  is  moist  or  humid. 


ANNUAL  RAIN-FALL. 


Visible  masses  of  vapor  resting  on  or  near  the 
ground  are  called  fogs,  while  those  floating  in  the 
air  at  a  considerable  height  are  distinguished  as- 
clouds. 

CONDENSATION-ITS  CAUSES. 

Condensation  and  rain  are  mostly  caused  by  the 
cooling  of  currents  of  warm  air  laden  with  aqueous 
vapors.  Cold  causes  condensation;  the  vapors  con- 
densed fall  as  rain;  hence  rain  is  caused  by  the  cool- 
ing of  air  laden  with  moisture.  The  temperature  of 
tropical  winds  advancing  into  cooler  latitudes  is 
lowered,  the  moisture  is  then  condensed,  and  the 
rain  falls.  Cold  winds,  if  saturated,  advancing  into 
warmer  latitudes  become  expanded,  and  their  capac- 
ity for  moisture  is  increased  ;  they  become  less  hu- 
mid, the  clouds  dissolve,  and  the  air  becomes  clear 
and  dry. 

Winds  blowing  over  plains  retain  their  moisture, 
but  if  they  strike  a  mountain  they  become  cooled, 
and  the  rain  falls.  Plateaus  usually  receive  less 
rain  than  other  forms  of  relief,  because  the  mount- 
ains, which  form  the  borders  of  the  greater  num- 
ber, prevent  the  vapors  borne  by  the  winds  from 
reaching  them. 

From  these  facts  we  see  that  the  annual  amount 
of  rain  modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 

Sixth  Modification.  —  The  annual  quantity  of 
rain  modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 


The  nature  and  covering  of  the  soil  have  an  in- 
fluence upon  the  condensation  of  the  vapor  in  the 


440  APPENDIX:  CLIMATE. 

air.  A  region  with  nothing  to  shield  it  from  the 
burning  rays  of  the  sun  becomes  intensely  heated, 
and  imparts  to  the  superincumbent  air  a  tempera- 
ture so  high  as  to  dissipate  all  clouds  which  may 
float  into  it  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  A 
covering  of  vegetation,  on  the  contrary,  shields  the 
soil  from  the  sun's  rays,  keeps  its  temperature  lower, 
and  promotes  condensation.  And  whether  a  region 
be  bare  or  covered  with  vegetation  greatly  affects 
its  climate.  From  these  facts  we  see  that  the  nature 
and  covering  of  the  earth  have  an  influence  upon 
climate. 

Seventh  Modification. — The  nature  and  cov- 
ering of  the  soil  modify  the  climate  of  a 
place. 

The  clearing  of  forests,  the  draining  of  swamps 
and  marshes,  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  etc.,  are 
among  the  operations  of  man  by  which  the  climate 
of  a  country  is  greatly  modified  and  improved. 

Clearing  a  country  of  trees  has  the  effect  of  raising 
the  mean  annual  temperature,  but  at  the  same  time 
greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  introduced. 
Open  grounds  are  always  frozen  deeper  than  wood- 
lands, but  the  latter  retain  the  snow  and  ice  of  win- 
ter to  a  much  later  period  in  the  spring  than  the 
former. 

From  these  facts,  we  see  that  the  cultivation  of  a 
place  modifies  its  climate. 

Eighth,  Modification. — The  degree  of  cultiva- 
tion and  improvement  modifies  the 
climate  of  a  place. 


LAND-SURFACE.  441 

Both  the  moisture  and  salubrity  of  a  region  are 
influenced  by  its  vegetation. 

The  leaves  of  trees  and  plants  give  forth  moisture 
to  the  atmosphere,  and.  take  from  it  its  carbonic 
acid;  hence  the  forests  receive  more  rain  than  tree- 
less regions  similarly  situated,  while  at  the  same 
time  tbey  check  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from 
the  soil ;  thus  they  equalize  the  irrigation  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  and  augment  the  volume  of  its 
springs  and  rivers;  hence  forests  effect  an  important 
modificaton  of  climate. 

Salubrity  or  the  health  condition  depends  greatly 
on  the  general  character  of  the  surface,  as  to  even- 
ness or  unevenness.  When  the  areas  are  even  or  flat 
the  waters  spread  over  larger  surfaces,  become  stag- 
nant, and  are  charged  with  decaying  vegetable  and 
animal  matter. 

The  adjacent  atmosphere  receives  foul  emana- 
tions from  these  unwholesome  waters,  and  the  re- 
gion is  thus  rendered  insalubrious  and  unhealthful. 
Where,  on  the  contrary,  the  surface  is  uneven  or 
broken,  the  waters  collect  into  narrower  currents 
and  move  with  considerable  velocity,  carrying  away 
decaying  substances,  cleansing  the  region  and  ren- 
dering its  climate  more  and  more  wholesome. 

Hence  an  important  modification  in  a  region  re- 
sults from  its  evenness  or  unevenness  of  surface. 

Ninth  Modification. — The'  evenness  or  un- 
evenness of  the  surface  modifies  the 
climate  of  a  place. 


442  APPENDIX:    CLIMATE. 

RECAPITULATION. 

ELEMENTS. 

First  Important  Fact. — Temperature — that  is,  the 
heat  or  cold  of  a  place — is  an  element  of  climate. 

Second  Important  Fact. — Moisture — that  is,  whether 
it  is  wet  or  dry — is  an  element  of  climate. 

Third  Important  Fact. — The  prevailing  winds  are 
an  element  of  climate. 

GENERAL  LAW. 

The  climate  of  a  place  depends  principally  on  its 
latitude. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

First  Modification. — The  altitude  of  a  place  modi- 
fies the  climate. 

Second  Modification. — The  proximity  of  mountain 
ranges  modifies  the  climate. 

T hird  Modification. — The  prevailing  winds  modify 
the  climate. 

Fourth  Modification. — The  proximity  of  a  place  to, 
or  its  distance  from,  the  ocean,  modifies  the  climate. 

Fifth  Modification.  —  Ocean  currents  modify  the 
climate  of  a  place. 

Sixth  Modification. — The  annual  quantity  of  rain 
modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 

Seventh  Modification. — The  nature  and  covering  of 
the  soil  modify  the  climate  of  a  place. 

Eighth  Modification. — The  degree  of  cultivation 
and  improvement  modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS.  443- 

Ninth  Modification. — The  evenness  or  unevenness 
of  the  surface  modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 
KINDS  OF  CLIMATE. 

1.  A  temperate  climate  means  one  that  is  neither 
too  hot  nor  too  cold. 

2.  An  extreme  climate  means  one  that  is  either  too 
hot  or  too  cold. 

3.  A  genial  or  salubrious  climate  means  one  that 
is  in  every  way  agreeable,  favorable  to  health. 

DEFINITION. 

The  condition  of  a  country  in  regard  to  tempera- 
ture, moisture,  and  the  prevailing  winds,    is  CLI- 

MATB. 

CLIMATE    TOPICALLY 
ARRANGED. 

( 1.  Temperature. 
I.  ELEMENTS.    •<  2.  Humidity. 

( 3.  Prevailing  winds. 

II.  GENERAL  LAW. 

The  climate  of  a  place  depends  principally  on  its- 
latitude. 

III.  MODIFICATIONS. 

1.  Altitude  modifies  climate. 

2.  Proximity  of    mountain  ranges  modifies  cli- 
mate. 

3.  The  prevailing  winds  modify  climate. 

4.  The  proximity  of  the  ocean  modifies  climate. 

5.  Ocean  currents  modify  climate. 

6.  The  annual  quantity  of  rain  modifies  climate. 


444  APPENDIX:    CLIMATE. 

7.  The  nature  and  covering  of  the  soil  modify  cli- 
mate. 

8.  The  degree  of  cultivation  modifies  climate. 

9.  Evenness  or  unevenness  of  surface  modifies  cli- 
mate. 

HOW  TO  TEACH   CLIMATE. 

1st.  Develop  every  fact  separately. 

3d.  Develop  the  elements  of  climate. 

3d.  Develop  the  general  law  of  climate. 

4th.  Develop  the  modifications  of  climate* 

5th.  Develop  the  definition  of  climate. 

6th.  Write  the  principal  facts  developed  on  the 
hoard. 

7th.  Ask  the  pupils  to  commit  them  to  memory. 

8th.  Place  the  tabulation  on  the  board. 

9th.  Require  the  pupils  to  recite  from  the  tabula- 
tion. 

10th.  Reproduce  the  lesson. 

llth.  Illustrate  from  the  board  as  fully  as  possi- 
ble, using  colored  chalk. 

12th.  Require  the  pupils  to  assign  a  reason  for 
every  phenomenon  connected  with  climate. 

13th.  Give  thorough  drill. 


TOPICAL    INDEX 
TO 

DE  GRAFFS  SCHOOL-ROOM  GUIDE. 


PAGE 

ARITHMETIC 182-228 

I.  FIBST  IDEAS .-. 

11.  ADDITION 

a.  German  Method 

b.  Analysis* 

III.  SUBTRACTION 

Analysis 

IV.  MULTIPLICATION 

V.  DIVISION 

VI.  THE  GRUBS  METHOD 

VII.  FRACTIONS 

a.  General  Principles 

b.  Analysis 

VIII.  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 

a.  Practical  Suggestions  200 

b.  Fallaces  in  Analysis 202 

c.  Order  in  Solution 205 

d.  Mental  Arithmetic 207 

CALISTHENICS 372-389 

I.  DISCIPLINARY  COMMANDS 373 

II.  CAIISTHKNIC  MOVEMENTS 379 

CLIMATE 421-414 

I.  ELEMENTS 423 

a.  First  Important  Fact— Temperature...         424 

b.  Second  Important  Fact— Humidity.. . .         425 

c.  Third    Important    Fact  —  Prevailing 

Winds...  425 


446   DE  GRAFF'S  SCHOOL-ROOM  GUIDE. 


II.  KINDS i..... 

a.  Temperate 

b.  Extreme 

c.  Salubrious 

III.  GENERAL  LAW 

IV.  MODIFICATIONS 

a.  Altitude 

b.  Proximity  to  Mountain  Ranges 

e  Prevailing  Winds 

d  Bodies  of  Water 

«.  Ocean  Currents 

f.  Annual  Quantity  of  Rain 

g  Nature  and  Covering  of  the  Soil 

h  Degree  of  Cultivation 

i.  Evenness  or  Unevenness  of  the  Sur- 
face         441 

V.  DEFINITION 443 

VI.  TABULATION  —TOPICALLY  ARRANGED 443 

VII.  How  TO  TEACH ' 444 

DRAWING 93-101 

I.  AN  ESSENTIAL  SUBJECT 93 

II.  ELEMENTARY  DEFINITIONS 97 

III.  GEOMETRICAL  ANALYSIS 100 

GEOGRAPHY 246-308 

I  PRIMARY  GEOGRAPHY 246 

a.  The  Earth  as  a  Whole 247 

b.  Relative  Position 250 

c.  Cardinal  Points 281 

d.  Geographical  Definitions 254 

II.  ADVANCED  GEOGRAPHY 256 

a.  General  Directions 256 

b.  North  America 859 

General  Features 961 

Surface 355 

Tabulation , 871 

O.New  York  State 972 

Surface... 975 


TOPICAL  INDEX.  447 

FACT 

Rivera 380 

Cities.... 4 890 

GRAMMAR 229-245 

I.  THE  SENTENCE 230 

II.  CLASSIFICATION • 244 

(See  LANGUAGE  LESSONS.) 

aiSTORY 309-317 

I.  ORDINARY  TEACHIN&  USELESS 310 

II.  PBOPER  METHOD 313 

III.  INCIDENTAL  LESSONS 816 

I.ANGUAGE 108-149 

I.  THE  PURPOSE  OF  GRAMMAR 103 

II.  SPECIMEN  LESSONS  106 

a.  Lesson  on  Objects 106 

b.  Lesson  on  Words 110 

c.  Lee  eon  on  Sentences 114 

d.  Lesson  on  Classification 117 

«.  The  Noun    120 

f.  Pnnctjiation 106, 138 

g.  Lesson  on  Paragraphs 133 

III  SUBJECTS  TOR  COMPOSITION 147 

LETTER-WRITING 150-181 

I.  SOME  FACTS  FROM  WASHINGTON 15? 

II.  ANALYSIS  OF  LETTER- WRITINO 156 

a.  Introduction 165,174 

fc.Bodyofthe  Letter 167 

C.  Conclusion 168,178 

d.  Superscription 161, 181 

III  PRACTICAL  HINTS 170 

IV.MODELS 174 

MANAG3MENT 407-114 

I.  A  REIGN  OF  JUSTICE 407 

II.  GOVERNMENT 408 

III .  CHARACTER  OF  THE  TEACHER. 410 

IV  Low  TONE  OF  VOICE 4U 

V.  COMMON  OFFENCES 363, 412 


448  DE  GRAFF'S  SCHOOL-ROOM  G  (TIDE. 

FAQS- 
NATURAL  SCIENCES 818  337 

I.  CAN  THEY  BB  TAUGHT  T 318 

II.  OBJECT  LESSONS 323 

a.  Lessou  on  Salt 326 

b.  Lesson  on  the  Bear 330 

c.  Lesson  on  Divisibilty  334 

ORGANIZATION 390-406 

I.  PREPARATION 391 

II.  THE  FIBST  DAT 392 

III.  DAILY  PBOGRAMMB.... 393,399 

IV.  A  SPIRIT  OP  WOKE 394 

PENMANSHIP 80  92 

I.  ANALYSIS 80 

II.  POSITION  AND  MOVEMENTS 84 

III.  CONSTRUCTION  op  LETTEBS 68 

PHONICS 47-69 

I.  IMPORTANCE  or  TEACHING 47 

II.  VOWELS 50-56 

III.  CONSONANTS 54-58 

READING ,., 9-46 

I.  DIFFERENT  METHODS 10-24 

a.  Word  Method 

b.  Object  Method.  

c.  1  honic  Method 

d.  Phonetic  Method 

e.  Peonotypic  Method 

/.  Word  building  Method..  

g.  Look-and-Say  Method 

h.  Sentence  Method 

i.  Drawing  Method 

j.  A,  B,  C  Method 

II.  PRIMARY  READING 

III.  INTERMEDIATE  READING 

IV.  ADVANCED  READING 

a.  "Nelly" 

b.  Rhetorical  Divisions. . . 


TOPICAL  INDEX.      •  449 

PAGB 

V.  HowToQAiw  SUCCESS 41 

RECITATIONS .'. 838-371 

I.  MAIN  OBJECT '. 838-340 

UL  How  TO  CONDUCT ,839,340 

a.  Oral  Method 3EO 

ft.  Text-Book  Method 851 

c.  Socratic  Method 858 

d.  Topical  Method 853 

e.  Discussion  Method 854 

/.  Lecture  Method 855 

in.  LAWS  or  QUESTIONING 357 

IV.  FIBST  PRINCIPLES 363 

Corporal  Punishment 363 

V.  SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNO  TEACHERS 367 

SPELLING 60-79 

I.  DIFFICULT  WORDS 62 

II.  ORAL  SPELLING 62, 67 

m.  WRITTKN  SPELLING •       64 

IV.  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 69 

a.  Constructive  Method •... 69 

b.  Objective  Method 68 

C.  Four  Methods 70 

V.  STUDY  THE  DIFFICULT  WORDS 73 

TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES.  .  404 


2n8-»eci  10  UME 


VUJJL  D* 


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Fitch    (Joshua  G.)  The  Art  of  Questioning.     Second   Edition. 

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Hughes  (James  L.)  MISTAKES  IN  TEACHING.     American 

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Hutton  (H.  H.)    A  MANUAL  OF  MENSURATION,  for  use 

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Huntington  (Rt.  Rev.   F.   D.)    Unconscious  Tuition.    Second 

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